"Conventional signs of topographic maps." Entertaining topography and orientation Topographic signs trees

Conventional signs There are contour, linear and non-scale.

• Contour(area) signs lakes are shown, for example;
• Linear signs- rivers, roads, canals.
• Off-scale signs For example, wells and springs are marked on plans, and settlements, volcanoes, and waterfalls are marked on geographic maps.

Rice. 1. Examples of off-scale, linear and areal symbols

Rice. Basic symbols

Rice. Conventional signs of the area

Isolines

There is a separate category of symbols - isolines, i.e. lines connecting points with the same values ​​of the depicted phenomena (Fig. 2). Lines of equal atmospheric pressure are called isobars, lines of equal air temperature - isotherms, lines of equal heights of the earth's surface - isohypses or horizontal lines.

Rice. 2. Examples of isolines

Mapping methods

To depict geographical phenomena on maps, various ways. By way of habitats show areas of distribution of natural or social phenomena, for example animals, plants, and some minerals. Traffic signs used to show sea currents, winds, and traffic flows. High-quality background show, for example, states on a political map, and quantitative background— division of a territory according to any quantitative indicator (Fig. 3).

Rice. 3. Cartographic methods: a - method of areas; b - traffic signs; c - method of high-quality background; d - quantitative background - dotted signs

To show the average magnitude of a phenomenon in any territory, it is most advisable to use the principle of equal intervals. One way to get the interval is to divide the difference between the largest and smallest indicator by five. For example, if the largest indicator is 100, the smallest is 25, the difference between them is 75, its 1/5 is -15, then the intervals will be: 25-40, 40-55, 55-70, 70-85 and 85-100 . When showing these intervals on a map, a lighter background or sparse shading depicts less intensity of the phenomenon, darker tones and dense shading depict greater intensity. This method of cartographic representation is called cartogram(Fig. 4).

Rice. 4. Examples of cartograms and map diagrams

To the method map diagrams are used to show the total magnitude of a phenomenon in a particular territory, for example, electricity production, the number of school students, fresh water reserves, the degree of arable land, etc. Map diagram called a simplified map that does not have a degree network.

Relief depiction on plans and maps

On maps and plans, the relief is shown using contour lines and elevation marks.

Horizontals, as you already know, are lines on a plan or map connecting points on the earth's surface that have the same height above ocean level (absolute height) or above the level taken as a reference point (relative height).

Rice. 5. Image of the relief with horizontal lines

In order to depict a hill on a plan, you need to define it relative height, which shows how vertically one point on the earth’s surface is higher than another (Fig. 7).

Rice. 6. Image of a hill on a plane

Rice. 7. Determination of relative height

The relative height can be determined using a level. Level(from fr. niveau - level, level) - a device for determining the difference in height between several points. The device, usually mounted on a tripod, is equipped with a telescope adapted for rotation in a horizontal plane and a sensitive level.

Conduct hill leveling- this means taking measurements of its western, southern, eastern and northern slopes from the bottom to the top using a level and driving in pegs in the places where the level was installed (Fig. 8). Thus, four pegs will be driven in at the bottom of the hill, four at a height of 1 m from the ground if the height of the level is 1 m, etc. The last peg is driven in at the top of the hill. After this, the position of all the pegs is plotted on the area plan and a smooth line connects first all points that have a relative height of 1 m, then 2 m, etc.

Rice. 8. Leveling a hill

Please note: if the slope is steep, the horizontal lines on the plan will be located close to each other, but if it is gentle, they will be far from each other.

Small lines drawn perpendicular to the horizontal lines are berg strokes. They show in which direction the slope goes down.

Horizontal lines on the plans depict not only hills, but also depressions. In this case, the berg strokes are turned inward (Fig. 9).

Rice. 9. Depiction of various relief forms by horizontal lines

Steep slopes of cliffs or ravines are indicated on maps by small teeth.

The height of a point above mean ocean level is called absolute height. In Russia, all absolute heights are calculated from the level of the Baltic Sea. Thus, the territory of St. Petersburg is located above the water level in the Baltic Sea by an average of 3 m, the territory of Moscow - by 120 m, and the city of Astrakhan is below this level by 26 m. Elevation marks on geographical maps indicate the absolute height of the points.

On a physical map, the relief is depicted using layer-by-layer coloring, that is, with colors of different intensities. For example, areas with a height from 0 to 200 m are painted green. At the bottom of the map there is a table from which you can see which color corresponds to which height. This table is called height scale.

Topic 8. CARTOGRAPHICAL SYMBOLS

8.1. CLASSIFICATION OF CONVENTIONAL SIGNS

On maps and plans, the image of terrain objects (situations) is presented in cartographic symbols. Cartographic symbols - a system of symbolic graphic notations used to depict various objects and phenomena, their qualitative and quantitative characteristics on maps. Symbols are sometimes also called "map legend".
For ease of reading and memorization, many conventional signs have outlines that resemble the top or side view of the local objects they depict. For example, symbols for factories, oil rigs, isolated trees, and bridges are similar in shape to the appearance of the listed local objects.
Cartographic symbols are usually divided into scale (contour), non-scale and explanatory (Fig. 8.1). In some textbooks, linear symbols are classified as a separate group.

Rice. 8.1. Types of symbols

Large-scale (contour) signs are conventional signs used to fill the areas of objects expressed on the scale of a plan or map. From a plan or map, using such a sign, you can determine not only the location of the object, but its size and outline.
The boundaries of area objects on the plan can be depicted with solid lines of different colors: black (buildings and structures, fences, roads, etc.), blue (reservoirs, rivers, lakes), brown (natural landforms), light pink (streets and areas in populated areas), etc. The dotted line is used for the boundaries of agricultural and natural lands of the area, the boundaries of embankments and excavations near roads. The boundaries of clearings, tunnels and some structures are indicated by a simple dotted line. The fill characters inside the outline are arranged in a specific order.
Linear symbols(a type of large-scale symbols) are used when depicting linear objects - roads, power lines, borders, etc. The location and planned outline of the axis of a linear object are depicted accurately on the map, but their width is significantly exaggerated. For example, a highway symbol on maps at a scale of 1:100,000 exaggerates its width by 8 to 10 times.
If an object on a plan (map) cannot be expressed by a scale symbol due to its smallness, then off-scale symbol, for example, a boundary sign, a separately growing tree, a kilometer pole, etc. The exact position of an object on the ground is shown main point off-scale symbol. The main point is:

• for signs of symmetrical shape - in the center of the figure (Fig. 8.2);
• for signs with a wide base - in the middle of the base (Fig. 8.3);
• for signs that have a base in the form of a right angle, at the apex of the angle (Fig. 8.4);
• for signs that are a combination of several figures, in the center of the lower figure (Fig. 8.5).

Rice. 8.2. Symmetrical signs
1 - points of the geodetic network; 2 - points of the survey network, fixed on the ground by centers; 3 - astronomical points; 4 - churches; 5 - plants, factories and mills without pipes; 6 - power plants; 7 - water mills and sawmills; 8 - fuel warehouses and gas tanks; 9 - active mines and adits; 10 - oil and gas wells without derricks

Rice. 8.3. Wide base signs
1 - factory and factory pipes; 2 - waste heaps; 3 - telegraph and radiotelegraph offices and departments, telephone exchanges; 4 - meteorological stations; 5 - semaphores and traffic lights; 6 - monuments, monuments, mass graves, tours and stone pillars more than 1 m high; 7 - Buddhist monasteries; 8 - separately lying stones

Rice. 8.4. Signs with a base in the form of a right angle
1 - wind engines; 2 - gas stations and gas stations; 3 - windmills; 4 - permanent river signaling signs;
5 - free-standing deciduous trees; 6 - free-standing coniferous trees

Rice. 8.5. Signs that are a combination of several figures
1 - plants, factories and mills with pipes; 2 - transformer booths; 3 - radio stations and television centers; 4 - oil and gas rigs; 5 - tower-type structures; 6 - chapels; 7 - mosques; 8 - radio masts and television masts; 9 - kilns for burning lime and charcoal; 10 - mazars, suborgans (religious buildings)

Objects expressed by off-scale symbols serve as good landmarks on the ground.
Explanatory symbols (Fig. 8.6, 8.7) are used in combination with large-scale and non-scale; they serve to further characterize local items and their varieties. For example, an image of a coniferous or deciduous tree in combination with a conventional forest sign shows the dominant tree species in it, an arrow on a river indicates the direction of its flow, and transverse strokes on a railway symbol indicate the number of tracks.

Rice. 8.6. Explanatory symbols of a bridge, highway, river

Rice. 8.7. Characteristics of forest stands
In the numerator of the fraction - the average height of trees in meters, in the denominator - the average thickness of trunks, to the right of the fraction - the average distance between trees

The maps contain signatures of the proper names of settlements, rivers, lakes, mountains, forests and other objects, as well as explanatory signatures in the form of alphabetic and numerical designations. They allow us to obtain additional information about the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of local objects and relief. Lettered explanatory signatures are most often given in abbreviated form according to the established list of conventional abbreviations.
For a more visual representation of the terrain on maps, each group of symbols related to the same type of terrain elements (vegetation cover, hydrography, relief, etc.) is printed with paint of a certain color.

8.2. CONVENTIONAL SIGNS OF LOCAL OBJECTS

Settlements on topographic maps of scales 1:25,000 - 1:100,000 show everything (Fig. 8.8). Next to the image of the settlement, its name is signed: cities - in capital letters of a straight font, and a rural settlement - in lowercase letters of a smaller font. Under the name of a rural settlement, the number of houses is indicated (if known), and if they have district and village councils, their abbreviated signature (PC, CC).
The names of city and holiday villages are printed on maps in capital letters of italic font. When depicting settlements on maps, their external outlines and the nature of the layout are preserved, main and through passages, industrial enterprises, outstanding buildings and other buildings that have landmark significance are identified.
Wide streets and squares, depicted on the map scale, are shown with large-scale symbols in accordance with their actual size and configuration, other streets - with conventional out-of-scale symbols, main (main) streets are highlighted on the map with a wider clearance.

Rice. 8.8. Settlements

Populated areas are depicted in most detail on maps at scales of 1:25,000 and 1:50,000. Blocks with predominant fire-resistant and non-fire-resistant buildings are painted over with the appropriate color. As a rule, all buildings located on the outskirts of populated areas are shown.
The map at a scale of 1: 100,000 basically preserves the image of all main streets, industrial facilities and the most important objects that are landmarks. Individual buildings within blocks are shown only in settlements with very sparse buildings, for example, in dacha-type settlements.
When depicting all other settlements, buildings are combined into blocks and filled with black paint; the fire resistance of buildings on the 1:100,000 map is not highlighted.
Selected local items significant landmarks are plotted on the map most accurately. Such local objects include various towers and towers, mines and adits, wind turbines, churches and separate buildings, radio masts, monuments, individual trees, mounds, rock outcrops, etc. All of them, as a rule, are depicted on maps conventional out-of-scale signs, and some are accompanied by abbreviated explanatory captions. For example, signature check yy. with the sign of a mine means that the mine is coal.

Rice. 8.9. Selected local items

Road network on topographic maps it is depicted in full and detail. Railways are shown on maps and divided according to the number of tracks (one-, two- and three-track), gauge (normal and narrow-gauge) and condition (operating, under construction and dismantled). Electrified railways are distinguished by special symbols. The number of tracks is indicated by dashes perpendicular to the axis of the conventional road sign: three dashes - three-track, two - double-track, one - single-track.
On railways they show stations, sidings, platforms, depots, track posts and booths, embankments, excavations, bridges, tunnels, semaphores and other structures. The proper names of the station (passages, platforms) are signed next to their symbols. If the station is located in or near a populated area and has the same name as it, then its signature is not given, but the name of this populated area is emphasized. The black rectangle inside the station symbol indicates the location of the station relative to the tracks: if the rectangle is located in the middle, then the tracks run on both sides of the station.

Rice. 8.10. Railway stations and structures

Symbols for platforms, checkpoints, booths and tunnels are accompanied by corresponding abbreviated captions ( pl., bl. p., B, tun.). Next to the symbol of the tunnel, in addition, its numerical characteristic is placed in the form of a fraction, the numerator of which indicates the height and width, and the denominator - the length of the tunnel in meters.
Road And ground roads When depicted on maps, they are divided into paved and unpaved roads. Paved roads include freeways, improved highways, highways, and improved unpaved roads. Topographic maps show all paved roads in the area. The width and surface material of motorways and highways are indicated directly on their symbols. For example, on the highway the signature 8(12)A means: 8 - width of the covered part of the road in meters; 12 - width of the road from ditch to ditch; A- coating material (asphalt). On improved dirt roads, usually only a label is given for the width of the road from ditch to ditch. Freeways, improved highways, and highways are highlighted in orange on maps, improved dirt roads - yellow or orange.

Figure 8.11. Highways and dirt roads

Topographic maps show unpaved dirt (country) roads, field and forest roads, caravan routes, trails and winter roads. If there is a dense network of roads of a higher class, some secondary roads (field, forest, dirt) on maps of scales 1:200,000, 1:100,000, and sometimes 1:50,000 may not be shown.
Sections of dirt roads passing through wetlands, lined with bundles of brushwood (fascines) on wooden beds and then covered with a layer of earth or sand, are called fascines sections of roads. If on such sections of roads, instead of fascines, a flooring of logs (poles) or simply an embankment of earth (stones) is made, then they are called ruts and rowings, respectively. Fascinal sections of roads, roads and boats are indicated on maps by dashes perpendicular to the conventional sign of the road.
On highways and dirt roads they show bridges, pipes, embankments, excavations, tree plantings, kilometer posts and passes (in mountainous areas).
Bridges depicted on maps with symbols of different designs depending on the material (metal, reinforced concrete, stone and wood); In this case, two-tier bridges, as well as drawbridges and drawbridges, are distinguished. Bridges on floating supports are distinguished by a special symbol. Next to the symbols of bridges with a length of 3 m or more, and located on roads (except for highways and improved highways), their numerical characteristics are signed in the form of a fraction, the numerator of which indicates the length and width of the bridge in meters, and the denominator - the load capacity in tons Before the fraction, indicate the material from which the bridge is built, as well as the height of the bridge above the water level in meters (on navigable rivers). For example, the signature next to the bridge symbol (Fig. 8.12) means that the bridge is made of stone (material of construction), the numerator is the length and width of the roadway in meters, the denominator is the load capacity in tons.

Rice. 8.12. Overpass over the railway

When designating bridges on highways and improved highways, only their length and width are given. Characteristics of bridges less than 3 m long are not given.

8.3. HYDROGRAPHY (WATER BODIES)

Topographic maps show the coastal part of the seas, lakes, rivers, canals (ditches), streams, wells, springs, ponds and other bodies of water. Their names are written next to them. The larger the map scale, the more detailed water bodies are depicted.
Lakes, ponds and other bodies of water shown on maps if their area is 1 mm2 or more on the map scale. Smaller bodies of water are shown only in arid and desert areas, as well as in cases where they serve as reliable landmarks.

Rice. 8.13. Hydrography

Rivers, streams, canals and main ditches Topographic maps show everything. It has been established that on maps of scales 1:25,000 and 1:50,000, rivers up to 5 m wide, and on maps of scale 1:100,000 - up to 10 m are indicated by one line, wider rivers - by two lines. Channels and ditches with a width of 3 m or more are depicted by two lines, and those less than 3 m wide - by one.
Width and depth of rivers (channels) in meters is written as a fraction: the numerator is the width, the denominator is the depth and nature of the bottom soil. Such signatures are placed in several places along the river (canal).
River flow speed (m/s), depicted by two lines, point in the middle of the arrow showing the direction of the flow. On rivers and lakes, the height of the water level during low-water periods in relation to sea level (water edge marks) is also indicated.
Shown on rivers and canals dams, gateways, ferries (transportation), fords and give the corresponding characteristics.
Wells denoted by blue circles next to which a letter is placed TO or signature art. To. (artesian well).
Ground water pipelines are shown by solid blue lines with dots (every 8 mm), and underground ones by broken lines.
To make it easier to find and select water supply sources on the map in steppe and desert areas, the main wells are marked with a larger symbol. In addition, if there is data, an explanatory signature of the ground level mark is given to the left of the symbol of the well, and to the right - the depth of the well in meters and the filling rate in liters per hour.

8.4. SOIL AND VEGETATION COVER

Soil -vegetable cover are usually depicted on maps with large-scale symbols. These include conventional signs for forests, shrubs, gardens, parks, meadows, swamps and salt marshes, as well as conventional signs depicting the nature of the soil cover: sand, rocky surface, pebbles, etc. When designating soil and vegetation cover, a combination of conventional symbols is often used signs. For example, in order to show a swampy meadow with bushes, the area occupied by the meadow is marked with a contour, inside which the symbols of swamp, meadow and bushes are placed.
The contours of areas covered with forests and shrubs, as well as the contours of swamps and meadows, are indicated on maps by dotted lines. If the boundary of a forest, garden or other land is a linear local object (ditch, fence, road), then in this case the symbol of a linear local object replaces the dotted line.
Forest, bushes. The area of ​​the forest inside the contour is painted over with green paint. The tree species is shown with the icon deciduous, coniferous, or a combination of both when the forest is mixed. If there is data on the height, thickness of trees and density of the forest, its characteristics are indicated with explanatory captions and numbers. For example, the caption indicates that coniferous trees (pine) predominate in this forest, their average height is 25 m, the average thickness is 30 cm, the average distance between tree trunks is 4 m. When depicting clearings on a map, their width is indicated in meters.

Rice. 8.14. Forests

Rice. 8.15. Shrubs

Rice. 8.16. Swamps

The depth of impassable and impassable swamps is written next to the vertical arrow indicating the location of the measurement. Difficult and impassable swamps are shown on maps with the same symbol.
Salt marshes on maps they are shown with vertical blue shading, dividing them into passable (intermittent shading) and impassable (solid shading).

On topographic maps, as their scale becomes smaller, homogeneous topographic symbols are combined into groups, the latter into one generalized symbol, etc. In general, the system of these symbols can be represented in the form of a truncated pyramid, at the base of which there are signs for topographic plans at a scale of 1:500, and at the top - for survey topographic maps at a scale of 1:1,000,000.

8.5. COLORS OF TOPOGRAPHICAL SIGNS

Colors topographic symbols are the same for maps of all scales. Line marks of lands and their contours, buildings, structures, local objects, strong points and boundaries are printed upon publication black color, relief elements - brown; reservoirs, watercourses, swamps and glaciers - blue(mirror of water - light blue); area of ​​trees and shrubs - green(dwarf forests, dwarf trees, shrubs, vineyards - light green), neighborhoods with fire-resistant buildings and highways - orange, neighborhoods with non-fire-resistant buildings and improved dirt roads - yellow.
Along with topographic symbols for topographic maps, conventional abbreviations of proper names political and administrative units (for example, Lugansk region - Lug.) and explanatory terms (for example, power plant - el.-st., southwestern - SW, working village - r.p.).

8.6. CARTOGRAPHIC FONT USED ON TOPOGRAPHIC PLANS AND MAPS

A font is a graphic design of letters and numbers. Fonts that are used on topographic maps and maps are called cartographic.

Depending on a number of graphic features, cartographic fonts are divided into groups:
- according to the inclination of the letters - straight (ordinary) and italic with inclinations to the right and left;
- according to the width of the letters - narrow, normal and wide;
- according to lightness - light, semi-bold and bold;
- by the presence of hooks.

On topographic maps and plans, two types of basic fonts are mainly used: topographic and outline italics (Fig. 8.17).

Rice. 8.17. Core fonts and cursive writing of numbers

Topographic (hair) font T-132 is used for signing rural settlements. It is drawn with a line thickness of 0.1-0.15 mm, all elements of the letters are thin hairlines.
Blank italics is used in the design of topographic maps, agricultural maps, land management maps, etc. On topographic maps, explanatory captions and characteristics are written in italics: astronomical points, ruins, plants, factories, stations, etc. The design of the letters has a pronounced oval shape . The thickness of all elements is the same: 0.1 - 0.2 mm.
Computing font or cursive writing of numbers, belongs to the group of cursive fonts. It was designed for recording in field journals and calculation sheets, since in geodesy many processes of field and office work were associated with recording the results of instrumental measurements and their mathematical processing (see Fig. 8.17).
Modern computer technologies provide a wide, almost unlimited selection of fonts of different types, sizes, designs and slants.

8.7. INSTRUCTIONS ON TOPOGRAPHICAL PLANS AND MAPS

In addition to conventional signs, topographic plans and maps contain various inscriptions. They constitute an important element of content, explain the objects depicted, indicate their qualitative and quantitative characteristics, and serve to obtain reference information.

According to their meaning, the inscriptions are:

• proper names of geographical objects (cities, rivers, lakes
  and etc.);
• part of a symbol (vegetable garden, arable land);
• conventional signs and proper names at the same time (signatures of names of cities, hydrographic objects, relief);
• explanatory captions (lake, mountain, etc.);
• explanatory text (convey information about the distinctive features of objects, specify their nature and purpose) (Fig. 8.18).

The inscriptions on the cards are made in various fonts with different letter patterns. Maps can use up to 15 different fonts. The letter design of each font has elements unique to that font, which is based on knowledge of the features of various fonts.
For groups of related objects, certain fonts are used. For example, roman fonts are used for the names of cities, italic fonts are used for the names of hydrographic objects, etc. Each inscription on the map should be clearly readable.
There are distinctive features in the arrangement of the inscriptions of proper names. The names of settlements are located on the right side of the outline parallel to the north or south side of the map frame. This position is most desirable, but not always feasible. The names should not cover the images of other objects and should not be placed within the map frame, so it is necessary to place the names to the left, above and below the outline of the settlement.

Rice. 8.18. Examples of inscriptions on maps

The names of area objects are placed inside the contours so that the label is evenly distributed over the entire area of ​​the object. The name of the river is placed parallel to its bed. Depending on the width of the river, the inscription is placed inside or outside the contour. It is customary to sign large rivers several times: at their sources, at characteristic bends, at the confluence of rivers, etc. When one river flows into another, the name inscriptions are placed so that there is no doubt about the name of the rivers. Before the merger, the main river and its tributary are signed; after the merger, the name of the main river is required.
When placing inscriptions that are not horizontal, special attention is paid to their readability. The following rule is followed: if the elongated contour along which the inscription should be placed is located from northwest to southeast, then the inscription is placed from top to bottom, if the contour stretches from north-east to southwest, then the inscription is placed from bottom to top.
The names of seas and large lakes are placed inside the contours of the basins along a smooth curve, in the direction of their length and symmetrically to the shores. Inscriptions of small lakes are placed like inscriptions of settlements.
The names of mountains are placed, if possible, to the right of the top of the mountains and parallel to the southern or northern frame. The names of mountain ranges, sand formations and deserts are labeled in the direction of their extent.
Explanatory inscriptions are placed parallel to the north side of the frame.
Numerical characteristics are arranged depending on the nature of the information they convey. The number of houses in rural settlements, the heights of the earth's surface and the water's edge are signed parallel to the north or south side of the frame. The speed of the river flow, the width of the roads and their covering material are located along the axis of the object.
Labels should be placed in the least crowded places on the cartographic image so that there is no doubt about which object they refer to. Inscriptions should not cross river confluences, characteristic relief details, or images of objects that have landmark values.

Basic rules for constructing cartographic fonts: http://www.topogis.ru/oppks.html

Questions and tasks for self-control

1. What are symbols?
2. What types of symbols do you know?
3. What objects are depicted on maps with large-scale symbols?
4. What objects are depicted on maps using out-of-scale symbols?
5. What is the purpose of the main point of an out-of-scale symbol?
6. Where is the main point located on the off-scale symbol?
7. For what purposes are color schemes used on cards?
8. For what purposes are explanatory captions and digital symbols used on maps?

In these explanations, the numbers in parentheses indicate the numbers of those symbols in the tables to which these explanations relate.

In the tables, the numbers in square brackets at the headings or at the end of the name of the symbols indicate the numbers of the state data in the explanation.

Dimensions of symbols

1. The dimensions of the symbols (in millimeters) are indicated by digital signatures, located, as a rule, to the left of the symbol. If one digital signature is given for a conventional sign, this means that the width of the sign is equal to its height; if two signatures are given, then the first indicates the height of the sign, and the second - its width. Digital signatures for individual parts of the symbol indicate the height or width of these parts. For a symbol in the shape of a circle, the size of its diameter is indicated, in the shape of a star - the size of the diameter of the circumscribed circle, in the shape of an equilateral triangle - its height.

Conventional signs (or individual parts of signs), the dimensions of which are not indicated, are drawn in accordance (by style and size) with the design of the signs given in the tables.

2. Conventional signs are drawn with clear lines, usually 0.08-0.1 mm thick; symbols of points of the geodetic network (1,4), plants, factories and mills (45a, 46a), some bridges (151, 154, 156, 160 - for a map of scale 1: 25000 and 151, 153, 156, 159 - for maps scales 1: 50,000 and 1: 100,000), locks - (162, 163), dams (169, 170) on original map sheets of scale 1: 25,000 are drawn with lines 0.2-0.25 mm thick, and on original map sheets scales 1: 50,000 and 1: 100,000 - lines 0.2 mm thick.

The gaps between closely spaced symbols must be at least 0.2 mm (on the scale of the map publication).

3. When drawing original sheets of a map of scale 1: 100,000 on a scale of 1: 75,000, the sizes of conventional signs established for a map of scale 1: 25,000 are accepted. In the case where the sizes of signs for maps of all three scales are set to the same (signs of railways, crossings , platforms and stopping points, sea channels that are not expressed on the scale of the map, etc.), when drawing originals on a scale of 1:75000, the size of the symbols must be increased by one third.

4. When drawing original sheets of maps of scales 1: 50,000 and 1: 100,000 for individual areas for symbols of objects that are good landmarks, such as signs of geodetic network points (1, 2, 4, 5), factory and factory pipes (44 ), plants, factories and mills (45, 46), etc., according to the decision of the editor, the dimensions established for a map at a scale of 1:25000 can be accepted.

In addition, in order to improve the readability of the map and to highlight the most important objects, it is allowed, at the discretion of the editor, to reduce or increase within small limits the size of some symbols.

Symbol color

5. In the tables, all symbols are given in the colors of paints adopted for the publication of maps.

On the original topographic surveys, conventional signs are drawn in the following paint colors: elements of hydrography, glaciers and firn fields (eternal snow) - green, relief elements - brown, all other line elements of content - black (ink). The areas depicting water spaces are painted in blue, the gap between the lines of conventional highway signs is painted in pink. The image areas of the remaining elements, on which background shading is given when publishing the map, are highlighted on the topographic survey originals with special line marks, namely: blocks of settlements with a predominance of fire-resistant buildings are indicated by a cross-shaped shading (16), blocks with a predominance of non-fire-resistant buildings - a single shading (17 ), forest areas - with black circles (235), areas of low-growing forest - with red circles (243), areas of continuous thickets of bushes - with red bush signs (253). Instead of the indicated line marks, background shading can also be used (paints that are poorly reproduced when photographed, but provide good readability).

Instructions for the use of some symbols

Strong points

6 (1-5). The symbol of points of the state geodetic network shows triangulation and polygonometry points of classes 1, 2, 3 and 4, the coordinates of which in the 1942 System are placed in catalogs (lists) of coordinates of geodetic points. Points of geodetic networks of local importance, the coordinates of which are placed in catalogs (lists) of coordinates of geodetic points, are depicted by a conventional sign of points of the survey network, fixed on the ground by centers.

The symbol of points of the state geodetic network on buildings (an empty circle in the symbols of buildings and churches) is used when depicting buildings, the towering parts of which (spiers, towers, etc.) are defined as geodetic points and their coordinates are included in catalogs. The circle on the building symbol is positioned so that its center corresponds to the point whose coordinates are determined. This conventional sign is not used to designate mosques, factory and factory pipes, plants, factories and mills with pipes, capital tower-type structures, lighthouses, lights and other similar objects defined as geodetic points. When drawn, the coordinates of such objects refer to the geometric center or the middle of the base of the sign (depending on the shape of the sign).

Settlements

7 (8). Conventional signs in the form of filled rectangles and other figures show residential and non-residential buildings in neighborhoods, in settlements with haphazard development, as well as separately located buildings.

8 tables provide three sizes of symbols to show residential and non-residential buildings that are not expressed on the map scale. The smallest sign is used to designate buildings located in urban, rural and dacha settlements, as well as in settlements with haphazard development; the medium size sign is used to designate buildings located outside settlements or in settlements, but distinguished by their size or important as landmarks; large sign - to show buildings that are remote from populated areas and have landmark significance. If the area of ​​a building on the map scale exceeds the size of the large size sign, then such a structure is depicted to scale.

8 (9). The symbol of outstanding fire-resistant buildings on a map at a scale of 1: 25,000 is used to show fire-resistant buildings located outside populated areas and in populated areas of all types, if they stand out among other buildings and can serve as good landmarks.

On a map of scale 1: 50,000, this symbol is used when depicting fire-resistant buildings located outside populated areas, in rural and dacha-type settlements, as well as on the outskirts of cities and urban-type settlements with a rural or dacha type of development. In other cases, they are shown by symbols of residential and non-residential buildings (8).

If an outstanding building is adjacent to a street, then the edging line in the symbol (on maps of both scales) from the side of the street image is not drawn.

9 (10.41-43). The symbol for separate courtyards is used to designate courtyards with a residential building and small outbuildings located outside populated areas. This sign is also used to show courtyards in dispersed settlements and, in addition, to show

on maps of scales 1: 25,000 and 1: 50,000 yards in villages with row buildings, located separately from the built-up row.

Yards, the areas of which on the scale map exceed (more than one and a half times) the established dimensions of the sign, are depicted to scale, with an accurate display of the planned position of the residential building and other buildings located in the yard.

10 (11, 18). The conventional sign of destroyed and dilapidated buildings shows the remains of buildings (ruins) that have been preserved and are clearly visible on the ground. Destroyed settlements and destroyed parts of settlements with surviving remains of buildings are shown with the symbol of destroyed neighborhoods; streets are shown only in cases where they are accessible.

11 (16, 17, 20). When depicting settlements with block and row buildings, blocks and parts of blocks (rows) with dense buildings are distinguished (the latter include blocks or parts thereof, where the distances between buildings, as a rule, do not exceed 50 m).

When depicting rural-type settlements with row buildings, the built-up rows are shown in stripes 1.4-1.5 mm wide - on a map of scale 1: 25,000 and 1.1-1.2 mm. — on a map of scale 1: 50,000; if the built-up rows have a width exceeding the indicated dimensions on the map scale, then they are shown to scale, showing their actual configuration.

On maps of scales 1: 25,000 and 1: 50,000, densely built-up areas with a predominance (more than 50%) of fire-resistant buildings (stone, brick, reinforced concrete, etc.) are highlighted with an orange background color when published, and with a predominance of non-fire-resistant buildings ( wooden, adobe, adobe, etc.) - yellow.

On a map at a scale of 1:100000, the nature of the fire resistance of buildings in blocks is not displayed.

12 (16, 17, 20). On a map at a scale of 1:25,000, when depicting urban-type settlements, the development in the blocks is shown in detail by symbols of buildings and structures. If the distances between building signs are less than 0.3 mm, a selection is made. The symbols of buildings adjacent to each other merge. When depicting blocks with continuous buildings along the streets, small buildings that are not adjacent to the streets are not shown.

On a map at a scale of 1:50,000, settlements, except large cities, are depicted showing the nature of the development. When depicting large cities characterized by dense buildings (as a rule, cities with a population of 50,000 inhabitants or more, as well as with a smaller number of inhabitants, but corresponding to such cities in area), only outstanding buildings, as well as industrial facilities and structures, are shown from the buildings in the blocks , which are guidelines.

On a map of scale 1: 100,000, the development of settlements, except for large cities, is shown with a black fill. In places where there are characteristic gaps in the development on the ground, filling is not given. Neighborhoods with dense buildings in large cities (as a rule, with a population of 50,000 inhabitants or more, as well as with a smaller number of inhabitants, but corresponding to such cities in area) are shown as closed contours with an orange background. In this case, the largest objects and structures that are good landmarks are also displayed.

When depicting blocks of settlements with background shading in orange, the generalization of blocks is carried out with the condition that their dimensions on the map scale are at least 1.0X1.0 mm; when depicting blocks (rows) with a black fill, the width of the filled strip should, as a rule, be 0.5 mm; in some cases, to achieve a more correct display of the layout and building, the width of the filled strip can be reduced to 0.4 mm.

13 (20-25). Parks, squares, orchards, sports grounds, vacant lots in residential areas are highlighted on maps of scales 1:25,000 and 1:50,000 if their area is at least 1.5x2.0 mm on the map scale.

Small areas of tree plantations and individual trees in blocks on a map of scale 1: 25,000, as well as on a map of scale 1: 50,000 (in the case of a detailed image of the building) are shown as circles against the background of shading, which characterizes the fire resistance of buildings.

14 (20, 35-37). When depicting rural-type settlements with block and row buildings on maps of scales 1: 25,000 and 1: 50,000, all buildings and structures in blocks (rows) are shown if the distances between building signs are at least 0.3 mm. At smaller distances, buildings are shown with selection so that the gaps between building signs are about 0.3 mm; Prominent fire-resistant structures and other buildings important as landmarks should not be excluded.

15 (20, 32-34; 38-40). When depicting dacha-type settlements and settlements with unsystematic development on maps of all scales, the development is depicted by symbols of residential and non-residential buildings and structures.

16 (21-37). Streets in populated areas are drawn in two lines 0.1 mm thick. When depicting main streets (main passages), the gap between the lines should be equal to 0.8 mm - on maps of scales 1:25,000 and 1: 50,000 and 0.6 mm - on a map of scale 1: 100,000. When depicting other streets, the gap between lines should be equal to 0.5 and 0.3 mm, respectively. If the width of the streets on the map scale exceeds the established values, the streets are depicted to scale.

The images of main streets (main passages) connecting highways are shaded in orange, with the exception of cases where residential areas are shown in orange or yellow.

17 (38-43). Conventional signs of residential and non-residential buildings and individual courtyards located along railways (except for signs of objects shown in combination with images of railways, for example signs of waypoints, loading and unloading areas, etc.), as well as along dirt, field and forest roads and trails are drawn at a distance of at least 0.2 mm from the road image (at a scale of 1: 75000 - at least 0.3 mm). These same conventional signs with road signs depicted in two lines are drawn together.

Industrial, agricultural and socio-cultural facilities

18. Conventional signs of industrial, agricultural and socio-cultural objects are located when drawing so that the following points of the symbol on the map correspond to the location of the object on the ground:

- for signs that have a regular geometric shape (circle, square, rectangle, star, etc.), the geometric center of the sign;

- for signs that have the shape of a figure with a wide base (signs of factory and factory chimneys, meteorological stations, etc.), - the middle of the base of the sign;

- for signs that have the shape of a figure with a right angle at the base (signs of gas stations, windmills, etc.), the apex of a right angle;

- for signs that are a combination of several figures (signs of oil and gas rigs, transformer booths, etc.) - the geometric center of the lower figure.

19. If the territory occupied by an object is depicted on a map to scale or its boundaries are indicated by a closed contour, then a symbol is placed inside such an image in the places indicated below:

- symbol of factory and factory pipes (44, 456) - in a place corresponding to the actual location of the pipe;

- conventional sign for mines and adits (47, 48) - in a place corresponding to the location of the headframe above the entrance to the mine or the planned position of the entrance to the adit; if the entrances to mines (adits) are located inside buildings expressed on a map scale, then the symbol of these objects is not used, but the buildings themselves are shown;

— symbol of peat mining (51) — in the middle of the image of the peat mining territory; if peat mining occupies a large area - in several places, at the rate of one sign per 4-5 square meters. cm map area;

- signs of oil and gas rigs and wells (52,53) - in a place corresponding to the actual location of the derrick or well;

- sign of fuel warehouses and gas tanks (54) - in the place corresponding to the location of the tank, tank or gas tank;

- sign of radio stations and television centers (58) - in a place corresponding to the location of the main building or building with a mast; sign of radio masts and television masts (59) - in a place corresponding to the actual location of the mast;

— signs of airfields (water aerodromes), landing sites (60) — in the middle of the image of the territories of these objects.

20 (46, 56, 72). When depicting plants, factories and mills without chimneys, power plants and meteorological stations, the territory of which is expressed on a map scale, symbols are not placed on the image of the territory, but signatures of the type of object or type of production are given nearby. If the listed objects are not expressed on the map scale, then they are depicted with corresponding off-scale symbols, which, if necessary, are accompanied by captions.

21. If one symbol serves to depict two or more different objects on maps, for example, oil and gas derricks (52), oil and gas wells without derricks (53), water mills and sawmills (61), monuments and monuments, tours and stone pillars more than 1 m high, mass graves and individual graves that have the significance of landmarks (74), etc., then it is usually accompanied by a signature indicating the type of object; if the signature would make it difficult to show other objects, then it will not fit.

22(44). The symbol of factory and factory pipes also shows the pipes of central heating systems in residential buildings, bathhouses, etc., which stand out for their height and have landmark significance.

23 (49). When drawn, the symbol for open-pit mining sites that are not expressed on a map scale is oriented with the convex side up the slope.

24 (50). The symbol for open-pit salt mining in the form of a closed contour, marked with lines parallel and perpendicular to the middle meridian of the sheet, is used to depict small areas of lake or sea salt extraction. When depicting salt mines with an area on a map scale of more than 4 square meters. cm stenciling is not given, and dams, canals, access roads and other structures are shown with appropriate symbols; such an image is always accompanied by the signature sol. or (subject to space availability) salt developments.

25 (66). The symbol of apiaries is used to designate permanent apiaries on the territory of which there are no buildings. If there are buildings at the apiary (a yard with a residential building or non-residential buildings), then they are shown with the appropriate symbols with the signature apiary, and the apiary sign itself is not given.

26 (27). The symbol for livestock pens is drawn in accordance with the orientation of the pen on the ground. Enclosures whose areas on the map scale exceed the dimensions of the symbol are shown to scale, showing their actual outlines. In this case, the signature corral is provided.

27 (71). The symbol of telegraph, radiotelegraph offices and branches and telephone exchanges is used when depicting sparsely populated areas to indicate the presence of corresponding facilities in rural settlements. The sign is placed under the signature of the name of the locality (see Article 107).

28 (75, 76). The symbol for cemeteries that are not expressed on the scale of the map is drawn in accordance with the orientation of the cemetery on the ground. When depicting cemeteries with trees on topographic survey originals, additional circles are drawn in the cemetery symbol (241); if the area of ​​the cemetery image is small, then one circle is drawn or shaded in purple.

29 (78, 79, 80). Communication and power lines running in the right-of-way of railways, highways and highways are not shown on maps. If-

If a communication or power line approaches the road from the side and then follows along it, then only a small section of the communication or power line (1-2 cm) is drawn parallel to the road sign to indicate its direction (100, 120). Signs of communication and power lines through the designations of roads and rivers are carried out without a break; When approaching the image of populated areas, they are interrupted.

When depicting on a map at a scale of 1: 25,000 power lines on metal or reinforced concrete supports, the transverse strokes of the symbol are applied in places corresponding to the actual position of the supports, in cases where the distance between the supports is more than 200 m; with a smaller distance between the supports, as well as on original sheets of maps of scales 1:50000 and 1:100000, the transverse strokes of the sign are drawn at the intervals indicated in the table; In this case, the supports that are the turning points of the line must be shown. The height of the supports (in meters) is indicated on the maps after 6-8 cm.

30 (79-83). Power transmission lines, gas pipelines and oil pipelines under construction are depicted by the corresponding symbols of existing facilities with the signature under construction (under construction) or page.

Railways and structures attached to them

31 (84-86.88). Transverse strokes in railway symbols indicating the number of tracks are drawn after 4 cm - on a map of scale 1: 25,000 and after 3 cm - on maps of scales 1: 50,000 and 1: 100,000. If individual strokes cannot be drawn in compliance with the specified intervals , then stroke displacement is allowed.

32 (84). The symbol of semaphores and traffic lights (on a map of scale 1: 25,000) is always drawn so that its longitudinal axis is parallel to the middle meridian of the sheet. The circle at the top of the symbol, depending on the convenience of placement, can be drawn to the right or left of the main figure of the sign.

33 (85.87). The symbol of stations is used to designate stations of any class in cases where the main station buildings (stations) and other station buildings and structures, as well as station tracks are not expressed on the map scale. The filled rectangle in the station symbol is placed in the place corresponding to the actual location of the main station building (station).

34 (91). The overpass symbol is drawn so that its length is equal to the length of the overpass on the map scale, but is not less than 2 mm. The image of long-distance overpasses (for example, overpasses laid to offshore oil fields remote from the shore) is accompanied by the caption overpass.

35 (93). In the conventional sign for the track of dismantled railways, the strokes in relation to the lines of the conventional sign are drawn at an angle of 60°. The same conventional sign also depicts the track of dismantled narrow-gauge railways.

36 (94). When drawing narrow-gauge railways and tram lines passing through the streets in populated areas, the thickness of the symbol line is reduced to 0.2 mm.

If a tram line runs along the side of a highway, then the tram line symbol is combined with the highway sign, i.e., it is drawn in place of one of the lines of the highway symbol (120).

Electrified narrow-gauge railways are not distinguished with a special sign.

37 (98). When large railway stations are shown to scale, the main track is shown with a single track sign or thick line, and other tracks are shown with thin lines. If it is impossible to show all the paths with the intervals between the lines on which they are drawn in the table, then the lines are drawn without saving the total number of paths, but displaying the configuration of the territory occupied by the paths. Access railway tracks in factory areas, ports, etc. are also shown.

Station buildings, depots and other station buildings and structures are shown with appropriate symbols.

Highway and dirt roads, trails

38 (99). The conventional sign for motorways shows roads that have a solid base and a durable coating of asphalt or cement concrete, the width of the covered part is at least 14 m, a dividing strip (as a rule) between traffic lanes in different directions, slopes of no more than 4%, intersections with other roads at different levels.

39 (100). The conventional sign of improved highways shows roads with a solid base and a coating of asphalt, cement concrete, paving stones, clinker, as well as crushed stone or gravel impregnated with binders, with a width of the covered part of at least 6 m.

40 (101). The conventional highway sign shows roads with a stone base. sand or hard soil and a covering of gravel, crushed stone or slag, compacted by rolling or treated with binders, as well as cobblestone and crushed stone pavements. This sign also shows roads with a base and surface of improved highways with a width of the covered part of less than 6 m.

41 (103). The symbol of improved dirt roads shows profiled, regularly repaired roads that do not have a solid base or surface. The soil of the roadway can be improved with various additives (gravel, crushed stone, sand, etc.) or treated with binders. These roads support medium-sized vehicle traffic during most of the year.

42 (106). The symbol for unpaved (country) roads shows unprofiled, unpaved roads, driven by horse-drawn vehicles;

their permeability depends on the nature of the soil and seasonal and climatic conditions.

43 (107). The conventional sign for field and forest roads shows dirt roads along which the movement of horse-drawn vehicles occurs sporadically, mainly during periods of field work and forestry.

44 (108). The conventional sign of caravan routes and pack trails shows roads in desert, semi-desert and mountainous areas used for pack transport; caravan routes can also be suitable for horse-drawn transport.

45 (109). The conventional sign for pedestrian paths shows the simplest paths suitable only for pedestrian traffic.

46 (110). The conventional sign of winter roads shows temporary routes in sparsely populated and inaccessible areas, passing through frozen swamps, lakes and river beds, as well as bays and straits; winter roads used by motor vehicles are identified by a winter road caption placed along the image of the road.

47 (111). The conventional sign for roads with a wooden surface shows roads with a flooring made of boards or wooden plates laid on cross sleepers, as well as from logs or wooden blocks.

48 (112). Fashin sections of roads (fashinniki), gati and rowing are shown when depicting improved dirt and unpaved (country) roads passing through wetlands. Fashinniki - sections of roads lined with bundles of brushwood (fascines); Fachines are usually laid on longitudinal beds, pressed against them with poles along the edges, and covered with a layer of earth or sand on top. Gati are a continuous flooring of logs, sometimes laid over brushwood. Rowing - embankments made of earth, stone, sand and other materials.

49 (99–101, 103, 106). When depicting motorways and highways, their technical characteristics are given: the width of the paved part of the road, the width of the road with shoulders (for highways) and the coating material. The width of the road is indicated in whole meters. The coating material is indicated by conventional abbreviated signatures:

A - asphalt, asphalt concrete Kl - clinker B - cobblestone C - cement concrete Br - paving stones Shl - slag G - gravel Shch - crushed stone K - crushed stone

The boundary for changing the coating material is indicated on the conventional road sign by a transverse line, on both sides of which the signatures of the coating materials are given (122).

On conventional signs for improved dirt roads, the width of the roadway is indicated.

On conventional signs for dirt (country) roads, their width is indicated in places where travel is possible only along the road (in a forest, in a swamp, etc.).

50 (102). Light roadside structures (pavilions, sheds) are shown on maps of scales 1:50,000 and 1:100,000 if they have landmark value.

51 (100, 116, 120, 139). Plantings of trees or bushes located along roads (rivers, canals, ditches) are depicted respectively by circles or circles and dots, which are placed at a distance of 0.2 mm from the line of the road sign (rivers, canals, ditches); with double-sided casing, casing marks are arranged in a checkerboard pattern. When combining images of the casing and communication lines, the circles of the casing sign alternate with the points of the communication line sign.

Sparsely located trees or bushes along roads (rivers, canals, ditches) are shown by the sign of individual trees that have no landmark significance (241), or by the sign of bushes along rivers, canals and ditches (139), which are drawn in places corresponding to the actual location of the trees or bushes

Plantings along roads, rivers and canals, which are strips of forest or shrubs with a width of 1.5 mm or less on a map scale, are shown with appropriate symbols (237, 255).

52 (121). The conventional sign of kilometer signs (posts and stones) is used to designate such signs on roads in sparsely populated areas and areas poor in landmarks. The conventional sign (Stroke) is drawn perpendicular to the image of the road and on the side of it on which the kilometer sign is located from the road.

Hydrography

53 (124). The table shows the minimum length of the links of a symbol of a non-permanent and uncertain coastline, used only to depict small bodies of water. When depicting large bodies of water, the length of the links should be increased. The gaps between the links also increase somewhat.

54 (131). The conventional sign for steep shores without a beach shows steep shores of seas, lakes and other bodies of water, as well as rivers with a map width of 1.5 mm or more, when passage between the coastline and the cliff is impossible. When depicting rivers less than 1.5 mm wide, steep banks without a beach are shown as steep banks with a beach that is not expressed at the map scale (1316).

55 (133). Rivers and streams are depicted in one or two lines, depending on their width, according to the following table.

River image on the map

River width in meters when depicted on scale maps

In one line

In two lines with a gap between them of 0.3 mm

In two lines, maintaining the actual width of the river on the map scale

Rivers depicted in one line are drawn, as a rule, with a gradual thickening of the line from source to mouth; rivers flowing in desert areas can be drawn with a gradual decrease in line thickness at the mouth (for rivers lost in the sand); The line thickness should be between 0.1 and 0.5 mm. When depicting rivers in two lines, the thickness of each line should be about 0.1 mm, and the smallest gap between them should be 0.3 mm. The transition from the image of a river in one line to its image in two lines should be smooth.

Canalized sections of rivers are shown in one or two lines, as is customary for depicting rivers and streams. Straight sections of canalized rivers are drawn using a ruler.

56 (135, 137). Channels with a width of more than 15, 30 and 60 m respectively on maps of scales 1: 25,000, 1: 50,000 and 1: 100,000 are drawn to scale in accordance with their actual width.

57 (141). When depicting rivers and canals with dams (artificial ramparts) in two lines, the coastlines are replaced by the lines of the symbol of the dams and between them a shading is given, adopted to indicate the areas of water spaces.

58 (145). The length of arrows indicating the direction of flow of rivers and canals that have a constant flow should be in the range from 5 to 15 mm, depending on the size of the river or canal.

59 (147). Fords across rivers, depicted in two lines, are indicated by a dashed line (if the width of the river image is less than 2 mm, one stroke is given) and the signature br. (ford); Conventional road signs are interrupted. Fords across rivers. depicted in one line are indicated only by a caption; in this case, road signs are drawn through the image of rivers without a break. Markings for fords across rivers 5 m or more wide include the characteristics of a ford.

60 (148). Transportation across rivers is indicated by a broken line (if the river is depicted in one line or in two lines, if the width of the image is less than 2 ll., one stroke is given) with the signature lane. (transportation); Conventional road signs are always interrupted.

61 (151-161). Bridges with a length of 3 to 40 m. From 3 to 80 m and from 3 to 120 m, respectively, on maps of scales 1: 25,000, 1: 50,000 and 1: 100,000 are shown with a symbol for bridges with a length of 3 m or more (in the indicated dimensions ); Longer bridges are shown to scale according to their actual dimensions.

The designations of bridges with a length of more than 3 m, located on highways and dirt roads, have their characteristics signed: the construction material is indicated in letters (D - wooden, Zh.B - reinforced concrete, K. - stone, .M - metal) and numbers - length and width bridge in meters and its load capacity in tons; In the designations of bridges over navigable rivers, in addition, the height of the bottom of the truss above the water level (at low water) is taken into account. If the load capacity of the bridge is more than 100 tons, then the signature of St. 100 (119).

The characteristics of railway bridges (116) are signed if their length is 100 l or more; the characteristics indicate the material of the building, the height from the water or ground level to the bottom of the span and the length of the bridge in meters, for example: ZhB 12—380. (reinforced concrete bridge, height 12 m, length ZNO m).

When depicting road intersections at different levels in cases where a highway passes through a bridge, the designation of the bridge (overpass) additionally gives the characteristics of the passage (opening) underneath it - height and latitude in meters. for example: ex. 6x8, where b is the height, 8 is the width (119).

62 (162, 163). Symbol of gateways, expressed on a map scale. gateways are shown, the distance between the entrance and exit gates of which on the map scale is 2 mm or more. Internal gates in multi-chamber airlocks are shown if the distance between the gates is at least 1 mm.

To depict gateways, the distance between the outer gates of which is less than 2 mm on the map scale, the symbol of gateways is used, not expressed on the map scale; the sign is placed in the place corresponding to the crossing of the lock system.

The characteristics of gateways (expressed and not expressed on a map scale) are given according to the main course of the gateway system. The specification indicates the number of gateway chambers (if there are two or more), the length of the smallest chamber in meters, the minimum gate width and the minimum depth at the threshold of the gateway gate.

When drawn, conventional lock signs are oriented so that the tip of the sign is directed against the flow of the river (canal).

63 (166). The symbol of rapids and waterfalls in the form of a chain of triangles is used to show rapids and waterfalls on rivers, depicted in two lines, with a river image width of 2 mm or more; rapids and waterfalls on rivers of smaller width (including those depicted in one line) are indicated by a transverse stroke and the signature por., vdp.

64 (167). Spills are shown only when depicting large rivers, if the width of the flooded strip is at least 1 km and the duration of flooding of the area is at least two months. Terrain objects in flooded areas, as well as in areas of reservoirs under construction, are shown with appropriate symbols. When depicting a reservoir under construction on a map sheet, this symbol is placed outside the frame (on the eastern side) with an explanation, for example: Flood zone of the Pervomaisky reservoir (shown based on design materials).

65 (169). For dam designations, the material of the structure is indicated by abbreviated captions: Bet. - concrete, D - wooden, reinforced concrete - reinforced concrete, Earth - earthen, K - stone.

66 (175–178). The signature K.. at the sign of a well depicted on the map without a signature of its own name is given only in cases where the well needs to be highlighted as a landmark. Designations of artesian wells are accompanied by the signature art. k., hydrological wells - signed by hydr. well

On maps of scales 1: 25,000, 1: 50,000, 1: 100,000, the designations of the main wells and springs in arid and waterless areas are marked with their characteristics. The well designations include: ground level, well depth in meters, quality characteristics of the water (salty, bitter-salty;

fresh—not specified) and the filling capacity of the well in liter hours; The designations of artesian wells and main sources indicate the ground level, the quality characteristics of the water and the flow rate in litre-hours. Signatures also accompany the designations of wells in which there is no water (dry, filled-in).

On a map of scale 1: 25,000, wells in all areas are marked with the ground level, depth of the well and quality characteristics of the water.

67 (186). The symbol for breakwaters and berths that are not expressed on the map scale shows breakwaters and berths with a width on the map scale of less than 0.5 mm;

The length of the image of such piers and berths must correspond to their actual length on the map scale, but should not be less than 1 mm. If it is necessary to show shorter piers and berths, then the length of their image increases to 1 mm.

68 (187). The length of signs depicting breakwaters and groynes must correspond to their actual length on the map scale, but should not be less than 1 mm; if it is necessary to show shorter booms, then the length of their image increases to 1 mm. If the width of the river image is less than 2 mm, the groins are not shown.

Relief

69 (206). The main horizontals, additional (semi-horizontals) and auxiliary horizontals are drawn on publishing originals with well-filled lines 0.08-0.1 mm thick; thickened horizontal lines are drawn with lines 0.2–0.25 mm thick. Indicators of the direction of slopes (bergshtri-hi) are always drawn with a thin line 0.6 mm long.

Contour lines on the publishing original are drawn through the designations of all objects without a break, with the exception of rivers and canals depicted in two lines, gullies and ravines with a width on a map scale of less than 3 mm, recesses, pits and quarries. With the combined drawing of all horizontal elements, except

In addition, images of streets less than 1.5 mm wide, roads shown in two lines, and out-of-scale symbols should not intersect.

In any case, digital signatures should be horizontal with their base oriented down the slope.

70 (207). Dry river beds are depicted in one or two lines depending on their width, as is customary for depicting rivers and streams (v. 55). When the width of the dry channel on the map scale is 3 mm or more, horizontal lines are drawn between the lines depicting the banks and the bottom soil (sand, pebbles, rocky placers) is displayed with the corresponding symbols.

71 (209). Labels of elevation marks at road intersections, individual trees and landmark buildings are given as examples; elevation marks can also be placed when designating other objects that are landmarks.

72 (213). The symbol for outlier rocks is given in two sizes. A larger sign is used to highlight the largest rocks that can serve as good landmarks.

73 (216). The symbol of mounds on maps of scales 1:50000 and 1:100000 shows not only artificial (bulk) mounds, but also various mounds of natural formation (for example, bulgunnyakhs, common in permafrost areas) that are not expressed by horizontal lines. The designations of the Bulgunnyakhs are accompanied by the signature of the Bulg. On a map of scale 1:25,000, artificial landforms (pits, mounds) are depicted with black symbols.

74 (217). The symbol for karst sinkholes, which are not expressed on the map scale, shows sinkholes with a diameter less than that on the map scale. 2 mm. Large forms of karst formations, depending on the nature of the slopes, are depicted by horizontal lines - on gentle slopes or by symbols of holes. expressed on the map scale (2156), cliffs (231) and rocks (223zh) - on steep slopes. At the same time, on the map area where the distribution of karst formations is displayed, the signature karst is given.

75 (218). The conventional sign for entrances to caves and grottoes is oriented when drawn so that its base is parallel to the north or south side of the sheet frame.

76 (219). Volcano craters, expressed on the map scale, are shown by symbols of cliffs (231), rocks (223zh) or horizontal lines (if the internal slopes of the crater are gentle).

77 (221). The conventional sign of dikes depicts narrow, steep-sided ridges of hard rocks, located along mountain slopes, often inconsistent with the general slope of the surface. Images of dikes of significant length or height are accompanied by a caption of their relative height.

78 (223a, b). The boundaries of firn fields (eternal snow) are indicated by a dotted line (blue), except in cases where the border of their distribution runs along natural boundaries (rocks, cliffs). Images of glaciers are outlined with a thin blue line. The images of the firn field and the glacier are not separated by a contour.

79 (223zh, z, i, 226). According to the line drawing of rocks and screes in places where the laying allows, horizontal lines are drawn that correspond to the thickened ones, but with a decrease in their thickness to 0.08-0.1 mm.

When depicting steep slopes in areas where the gaps between contour lines are less than 0.1 mm, merging contour lines is allowed (if the length of the area on the map scale is less than 1 cm) or between thickened contour lines, not four, but three or two intermediate contour lines are drawn (if the length of the area is more than 1 cm), and the remaining horizontal lines are interrupted.

80 (225). Ice cliffs (barriers) and fossil ice are represented by the ri-suv of the rock sign or the sign of cliffs, depending on the width of their distribution in the plan.

Vegetation cover and soils

81. Tables No. 23-26 indicate the minimum distances between the line symbols filling the area of ​​the vegetation image

Soils (gardens, vineyards, rice fields, etc.), which should be managed

used when depicting small (area on a map scale up to 3-4 sq. cm) plots of land. When depicting areas of significant area, the distances between line symbols can be increased by one and a half, two or three times, depending on the size of the area filled by the signs. When depicting small areas of various types of vegetation and soils, shown by line symbols in combination with background shading (for example, continuous thickets of saxaul or dwarf dwarf), it is allowed to draw only one line symbol on the contoured area.

82 (232). The dotted line depicts the contours of areas of vegetation, soil and arable land that are clearly defined on the ground. The contours of arable lands are not filled with a special symbol.

83 (233-236, 243, 244). Forests, low-growing (dwarf) forests, undergrowth, forest nurseries and young plantings are depicted with division into coniferous, deciduous and mixed, for which line symbols are used. The predominant tree species are indicated by captions. Signatures are given in a conventional abbreviation, and if conventional abbreviations are not provided for them, then in full form.

When depicting a mixed forest, two main species are indicated.

The characteristics of the forest stand indicate the average values ​​(average height, average thickness and average distance between trees).

The characteristics of the tree stand of a low-growing (dwarf) forest are signed only when large tracts are depicted (with an area on a map scale of more than 25 sq. cm) in the same form as the characteristics of an ordinary forest.

In the designation of the type of growth, forest nurseries and young forest plantings, only the average height of trees in meters is indicated; the height of trees less than 1 m is indicated in tenths of a meter.

84 (237). The symbol for narrow strips of forest and protective forest plantations shows strips of forest and protective forest plantations whose width on the map scale is 1.5 mm or less; with a larger width, they are shown, respectively, as symbols of a forest or undergrowth, with outlines and background shading.

The numbers indicate the average height of trees in meters; the height of plantings less than 1 m is indicated in tenths of a meter.

85 (241). The symbol of individual trees, which do not have landmark significance, is used to show trees inside residential areas, near individual courtyards and buildings, in vegetable gardens, arable lands, meadows, etc.

86 (248-251). Clearings in the forest with a width of 20 m or more, 40 m or more and 60 m or more, respectively, on maps of scales 1: 25000, 1: 50000 and 1: 100000 are shown in two broken thin lines in accordance with their actual width at the map scale; in the gap between the lines of the symbol, green shading is not given. Clearings of smaller width are shown as one dashed line, while the thickness of the sign strokes increases slightly (up to 0.15 mm).

Roads, communication lines, ditches and other objects passing along clearings that are not expressed on the scale of the map are shown with accepted symbols; in these cases, the symbol of the clearing is not drawn.

87 (254). The type and height of shrubs are indicated when depicting continuous thickets. The average height of shrubs is indicated in tenths of a meter if it is less than 1 m, and in whole meters for greater heights.

88 (255). The symbol of narrow strips of shrubs and hedges is used to depict strips of these plantings with a width of 1.5 mm or less on a map scale; when they are wider, they are shown as a symbol of continuous thickets of bushes, with outlines and background shading (2536).

89 (263). Mangroves are shown with hatched symbols on both the land image and the water image in accordance with the distribution of mangroves in the area. In the image of land, the signs of mangrove vegetation are drawn in combination with the conventional sign of an impassable swamp.

90 (264). When depicting greenhouses, conventional signs are placed in accordance with the orientation of the greenhouses on the ground; The minimum length of the sign (rectangle divided by a line) must be 3.2 mm.

91 (266). The symbol of a plantation of industrial crops (trees, shrubs and herbs) shows plantations for which special symbols are not provided. Plantations of those crops for which land plots are permanently occupied are distinguished. Types of crops are indicated by signatures (tung, rose, jute, etc.).

92 (268). Symbols for reed and reed thickets are placed without markings.

93 (272–275). When depicting small swamps and salt marshes (with an area on the map scale of less than 1 sq. cm), the distances between the strokes of the symbol are reduced to 0.8 mm on a map of scale 1: 25,000 and 0.6 mm on maps of scale 1: 50,000 and 1: 100000. Symbols of vegetation based on the image of a swamp are located without markings. The classification of swamps and salt marshes is made according to their passability for pedestrians.

94 (276). The conventional sign of takyrs is used to depict flat, devoid of vegetation areas of clay surface with a hard crust, broken by small cracks, found in desert and semi-desert areas.

Takyrs with an area of ​​less than 25 square meters on the map scale. mm are shown as a single line mark, without bordering or background shading.

95 (277). The symbol of polygonal surfaces is used to depict areas common in tundra and mountainous regions with a surface broken by cracks that form a peculiar pattern of polygons.

96 (278). The symbol of surfaces with mounds is used to depict areas with peat mounds that are not expressed on the map scale, characteristic of tundra and taiga regions.

97 (283-287). Sand relief forms on a 1:25000 scale map are shown as contour lines, while the area occupied by sands is covered by the symbol of level sands. On maps of scales 1: 50,000 and 1: 100,000, horizontal lines are used to convey large sand relief forms; small sand relief forms are depicted with corresponding symbols.

When depicting ridge and dune sands, the conventional signs of the ridges should be located in accordance with their orientation on the ground, which depends on the direction of the prevailing winds. When depicting dune sands, the signs of the dunes with the concave side (horns) are oriented in the direction of the prevailing winds.

98. Examples of combinations of symbols of vegetation cover and soil given in tables No. 27-29 do not exhaust all possible options. When depicting small areas of vegetation and soil on maps, a combination of signs of more than three types is, as a rule, not allowed.

99 (289, 290). Vaguely defined boundaries of areas of vegetation cover and soils, on the image area of ​​which background shading is given when publishing the map, are shown on the survey originals with a sparse dotted line in red, and on publishing originals - with a sparse dotted line in black, which is not printed during publication.

Borders and fences

100 (310). State boundaries are drawn with special care, in strict accordance with official materials establishing their position. When depicting state borders, first, border signs and tips are applied, and then links and points of a conventional border sign are placed between them. The length of individual links and the spaces between links may vary slightly if necessary.

101 (312-314). Boundaries that do not coincide with the contours of the area are depicted with the corresponding symbol without breaks. The axis of the symbol must correspond exactly to the actual position of the border. Boundaries running along rivers, canals, roads, dams, clearings, etc., are shown with gaps

you - in groups of links (three or four links), located, as a rule, in places where sharp turns of objects are depicted, but not less than every 4-6 cm.

The conventional sign of the border is shown on the side of the image of the object from which it actually passes; if the border coincides with any contour (except for that shown by the dotted line) and cannot be drawn in its place, then it is shown in groups of links alternately on both sides of the contour. The outline depicted by the dotted line is replaced by a conventional boundary sign.

Straight sections of boundaries are drawn along a ruler.

102 (315). The conventional sign of the boundaries of state reserves is drawn, as a rule, without breaks. The sign can be torn only in places where the border is a clear, clearly visible line (the shore of the sea, lake, large river).

Signature font samples

103. Tables No. 31-35 and samples of frame design show samples of fonts used for signatures, as well as their names and indices according to the “Album of Cartographic Fonts” (Geodezizdat, M., 1956 and 1957). The indices indicate the sizes of capital letters (in millimeters).

For captions of the names of individual parts of cities, captions of the second names of settlements and other geographical objects, as well as for captions of names placed outside the frames of map sheets, fonts are used that correspond in type to the fonts adopted for the main names, but lighter (lighter). The selection of such fonts is made according to the following table.

Font for signature of the main title

Font for signing the second title

Clear bold (4-132)

Clear narrowed bold (4-122)

Topographic bold (T-132)

Ancient italic bold (D-432)

Chopped wide bold (P-152)

Academic italic (A-431)

Clear (4-131)

Chopped (P-131)

Ancient italic core (Do-431)*

Chopped wide (P-151)

BSAM italic core 2 (Boa-431)

For the fonts Literary low-contrast (Lm-131) and BSAM italic low-contrast (Bm-431), lightweight fonts are not used; signatures of the second names are given in the same fonts.

The font sizes for signatures of secondary titles and signatures placed outside the frames of map sheets are, as a rule, taken to be one third smaller than the font sizes for signatures of the main titles.

For captions of the names of individual parts of the city, font sizes are selected depending on the size of the corresponding part of the city.

"Secondary names of settlements and other objects are given in brackets and are usually placed under the captions of the main names.

* The ancient italic skeleton font was made additionally after the publication of the “Album of Cartographic Fonts”.

104 (330-334). The font sizes for the names of rural and dacha settlements are indicated for moderately populated areas. For densely populated areas, according to the editor's decision, the font sizes of signatures of the names of individual gradations of settlements can be reduced, and for sparsely populated areas increased by 0.2-0.3 mm.

There are two font sizes for signatures of individual courtyard names. The names of individual courtyards remote from populated areas are signed in larger font; when there is a dense arrangement of courtyards, this font is used for captions of the names of courtyards that have the significance of landmarks.

105 (336). The Ancient Italic straight font of the size indicated in the table is also used for signatures. (crossing), pl. (platform), osg. n. (stopping point) in cases where the proper names of these objects are not given.

106 (337). If an explanatory signature is placed next to a symbol in the tables, this means that this symbol on maps, as a rule, must be accompanied by an explanatory caption, for example: the sign of an astronomical point (6) - the signature of an astr.; pier sign (185) - signed mountainist, etc. If several such homogeneous objects are located in a small area, then explanatory captions can be given only for images of the most important of them.

If an explanatory caption is not given in tables with a symbol, then on maps it is placed in cases where a particular object needs to be highlighted (for example, an object that is a good landmark).

107 (338, 344). Signatures of administrative centers (RS, SS, PS), the number of houses in settlements, as well as signatures and symbols indicating the presence of a particular object in a settlement are located below the signature of the name of the settlement, at a distance of 1 mm from it, and as symmetrical as possible.

108 (346, 347). With proper channel names, an abbreviated channel signature is given. (channel).

Scale of ink colors used for printing topographic maps at scales 1:25000, 1:50000, 1:100000

109. Table No. 36 gives a scale of ink colors used for printing topographic maps at scales 1: 25000, 1: 50000, 1: 100000. The table shows the names and numbers of the inks.

This scale should be used as a guide when preparing for publication and publishing maps.

Frame design samples

110. Drawing (engraving) of the frames of map sheets and the framing of publishing originals are carried out according to the attached samples.

The size of the map sheet together with the frame and border design in the north-south direction should not exceed 43.5 cm (on a scale of 1: 75000-58.0 cm).

111. When drawing originals on opaque materials, the rectangular grid lines are not drawn on the sheet itself (they are cut on the negatives during publication); When drawing (engraving) on ​​transparent materials, the lines of the rectangular grid are drawn completely.

112. On the original sheets of maps, in the nine freest places, evenly distributed throughout the sheet, digitization of the intersections of the lines of the rectangular grid is given. One of the intersections (closest to the northwestern corner) is digitized in full (coordinate values ​​are given in kilometers), the rest - with the last two digits.

113. On sheets of maps of scales 1: 50,000 and 1: 100,000, the intersection of the average meridian and parallel is shown and their digitization in degrees and minutes is given.

114. The frame of the card sheets is precisely divided into segments equal in degrees to one minute. The minute segments are shaded: odd in latitude, odd in longitude in the eastern hemisphere, even in the western hemisphere. Each minute segment is divided (by dots) into six parts of 10", with the exception of map sheets of scale 1: 100000, located within latitudes 60-76°, on which the minute segments on the northern and southern sides of the frame are divided into three parts (20" each). ), and those located north of the 76° parallel - into two parts (30" each). On the map sheets themselves, along the inner frame, the outputs of the minute divisions are marked with strokes 2 mm long. With the exception of the outputs of divisions that are multiples of 5", which on maps of scales 1:50 000 and 1:100,000 are given by 3 mm long strokes; individual outputs that would interfere with reading the map content are not drawn.

115. If the territory for which the map is being created is located in the Western Hemisphere, then in the northwestern corner of the sheet frame, to the right of the meridian longitude signature and at the same level with it, the signature west of Greenwich is placed;

Signature font - Chopped wide (P-151-2.0 s).

116. All elements of the northern and southern border design are placed from the outer frame at the distances specified in the frame design samples; The layout scale is located in the middle of the gap between the linear scale and the text of the output information.

117. If in the title of a map sheet, instead of the name of the main settlement, the name of some other geographical object is indicated, then it is given together with the corresponding nomenclature term (in a conventional abbreviation). Nomenclature terms with names are written with a lowercase letter, for example: LYSAYA, lake. ROUND, etc.

118. Outside the frame of the sheet (on the eastern side) various additional information is provided (about the geodetic basis, terrain passability, etc.), as well as additional symbols not provided for in these tables. The text part is given in Chopped wide font (P-151-1.8 s).

MUNICIPAL BUDGETARY INSTITUTION OF ADDITIONAL EDUCATION

"CENTER FOR CHILDREN AND YOUTH TOURISM

AND EXCURSIONS" BRYANSK

LESSON SUMMARY ON THE TOPIC:

DEVELOPED: teacher d/o

Stasishina N.V.

Bryansk - 2014

Plan - outline

classes on the topic

"Conventional signs of topographic maps."

Purpose of the lesson: Give an idea of ​​the symbols of topographic maps.

Lesson objectives:

To familiarize students with the concept of conventional signs and its varieties;

Involve circle members in systematic sports activities;

Develop skills in teamwork and joint search for solutions;

Continue to promote the development of logical thinking, memory and

students' attention;

Equipment: 1. posters with symbols.

2. cards with test tasks.

Type of classes: Learning new material.

Literature: 1. Aleshin V.M. “Tourist topography” - Profizdat, 1987

2. Aleshin V.M., Serebrenikov A.V., “Tourist topography” - Profizdat, 1985

3. Vlasov A, Ngorny A. - “Tourism” (educational manual), M., Higher

school, 1977

4. Voronov A. - “Tourist’s Guide to Topography” - Krasnodar., Publishing House, 1973

6. Kuprin A., “Topography for everyone” - M., Nedra, 1976.

Lesson plan

Preparatory part. (3)

New topic explained: (45)

Presentation of new information.

3. Consolidation of the studied material. (8)

4. Summing up the lesson. (2)

5. Organizational moment. (2)

Progress of the lesson.

1. Preparatory part:

Students take their places at their desks, prepare writing materials

The teacher announces the topic, goals and objectives of the lesson, explains the requirements and lesson plan, and checks those present.

Note

to be ready for

occupation, uniform

clothes for those involved.

2. Explanation of a new topic:

Statement of new information:

Today in class we will look at a new topic:

"Conventional signs of topographic maps."

The map has many names printed in ordinary words, numbers, lines and many icons of different colors, sizes and shapes. This topographical symbols, which indicate local objects on the map.

What are conventional signs?

Conventional signs are symbols with the help of which the actual terrain is depicted on the map.

Topographers came up with special symbols so that they would be as similar as possible to the local objects themselves, and would correspond in size to them on the map scale. So, for example, a forest on topographic maps is depicted in green (after all, it is actually green); houses and other buildings are depicted as rectangles, since when viewed from above, they really almost always have the shape of rectangles; rivers, streams, lakes are depicted in blue, since water, reflecting the sky, also appears blue to us. But it is not always possible to accurately depict every local object on the map in terms of shape, color and size. Let's take, for example, a highway whose width is 20 m. On a hundred thousandth map (1 mm 100 m) such a road would have to be depicted with a line one-fifth of a millimeter thick, and on a map of scale 1:200000 this line would have to be drawn even further thinner - 0.1 mm. Small but important local objects are depicted on topographic maps with special out-of-scale signs, that is, such signs that do not correspond to the actual sizes of local objects, reduced according to the scale of a particular map. For example, a small spring on the river bank is depicted on the map as a blue circle with a diameter of a whole millimeter; In addition, highways and other major roads are colored on maps so that they, as they say, are striking to everyone who picks up a topographic map. For example, an asphalt highway is depicted on a map with a bright red line.

The symbols used in drawing up sports maps for orienteering competitions are somewhat different from topographical ones. Their main purpose is to give the athlete the information about the terrain that he needs when choosing a path of movement. These are signs showing the passability of forests, swamps, paths, etc. So, for ease of reading while running, on a sports map, unlike a topographic map, it is not the forest that is painted over, but the open space - fields, meadows, clearings in the forest. All topographical symbols can be divided into four types:

1) linear- these are roads, communication lines, power lines, streams, rivers, etc. That is, these are signs of such local objects that themselves have the form of long lines;

Write the topic on the board.

Students write down a new topic in their notebook.

2) curly- these are signs of towers, bridges, churches, ferries, power plants, individual buildings, etc.;

3) area - these are signs of forests, swamps, settlements, arable lands, meadows - that is, local objects that occupy significant areas of the earth's surface. Area signs consist of two

elements: contour and sign filling the contour;

4) explanatory- these are signs characterizing the forest, names of settlements, railway stations, rivers, lakes, mountains, etc.,

this is the width of the highway, the length, width and load-carrying capacity of bridges, the depth of fords on rivers, and the like.

Almost all linear and figured signs are non-scale, and area signs, as a rule, exactly correspond to the true sizes of local objects. It is easier to study and remember signs by getting to know them in groups, which are formed according to the type of local objects:

group No. 1 - roads and road structures;

group No. 2 - settlements, buildings;

group No. 3 - hydraulic network (that is, water on the ground);

group No. 4 - vegetation;

group No. 5 - relief;

Group No. 6 - explanatory and special tourist signs.

Group No. 1. Roads and road structures

This group includes eleven most important topographical signs.

All roads can be divided into three main types: railways for train traffic, highways and unpaved roads.

Highway are called roads that have hard artificialcovering - stone (cobblestones, paving stones), asphalt or concrete. The highway sign is out-of-scale. Every SCO signseine road an additional sign is given on the map- alphabetic digital characteristic consisting of three elements: numbers, one more number in brackets and a letter. The first digit indicates the width of the highway surface in meters (that is, paved, pavedunified or stone-covered part of the highway), and in parenthesesa figure is given indicating the width of the entire highway surface in meters, that is, together with the roadsides. The letter indicates the material with which the highway is covered: if it is asphalt, then the letter “A” is put, if concrete is the letter “B”, and if the highway is covered with buskier or paving stones (i.e. stone), then the letter “K”.

The next type of highways is ground, earthen roads without artificial surface. All dirt roads are divided into three types: simple dirt roads (they are also called field or forest roads), country roads, and so on.

called improved dirt roads (abbreviated as UGD). An improved dirt road is also an earthen road, but has a slightly convex shape for better water flow, ditches along the sides and a gravel or crushed stone fill compacted with a roller.

Nobody specially lays paths; they arise spontaneously.fight from the constant walking of people. In densely populated areasRarely can an entire network go in the same direction at oncepaths that then close, then again diverge. So manyIt is impossible to depict the number of paths on the map, so the groupthe trail is shown by one conditional trail in the corresponding directionlenition. Only long enough and permanently existing (sometimes called “centuries old”) trails are markedon large scale maps. The trail sign is almost like thisthe same as a simple dirt road - a thin black intermittentdashed line, but every strokehas a shorter length.

Railways previously iso flogged with two thin blackparallel lines, clearance between which was filled byalternating black and white shanecks. Now signis a continuousthick black line. Two koRotkikh stroke across the signa railway means that it ishas two tracks. If there is only one track, then one line is added. If the cross stroke has anothera small stroke parallel to the railway sign, then I know that Read that the road is electrified.

For a railway station sign, a black rectangle inside a white rectangle is placed on the side of the railway where the station building (station building) is located.

Bridges. On simple dirt roads, as a rule, wooden bridges are built; on highways, improved dirt roads and on important country roads, bridges are most often made of concrete (stone). On railways, large bridges over large rivers are always metal, and over small rivers - concrete. Topographic signs of bridges are shaped and non-scale signs.
Where a bridge sign is placed on the map, the road and river signs are broken (Fig. 37). An explanatory sign for bridges is the alphanumeric characteristics of the bridge. For example: DZ =
(24 - 5)/10. Here the letter “D” denotes the material from which the bridge is built - wood (if the bridge is concrete, the letter is written

"TO"). Coefficient 3 is the height of the bridge above the surface of the water in the river. In the numerator of the fraction, the first digit, 24, is the length of the bridge in meters, the second digit, 5, is its width in meters. In the denominator, the number 10 shows the load capacity of the bridge in tons, that is, what is the maximum weight of the machine the bridge is designed for design.

Bridges are often also made on hiking trails, but very small ones - only for pedestrians. Such bridges (residents often call them either treasures or lavas) are sometimes just two logs laid over a river from bank to bank. The topographic sign for a pedestrian bridge is very simple.

Very often the roads intersect with small dry

ravines, hollows through which streams flow only in the spring, when the snow melts. When building a road, an embankment is made across the ravine, under which a concrete pipe is laid for

Students write down in their notebooks.

Symbols are sketched in a notebook

highway

Simple dirt road

Country road

Improved dirt road

Railway

Bridge

Pedestrian bridge

water flow. Such pipes have their own topographic sign.

Group No. 2. Settlements, individual buildings

This group contains fifteen most important topographical signs. The settlements themselves - villages, auls, hamlets, towns, cities - are complex formations, consisting of various buildings and structures. Therefore, there is no simple topographic sign of a populated area - it consists of topographic signs of various local objects that make up what is called a populated area.

Separate residential and non-residential buildings are depicted by an out-of-scale black rectangle. If the structure is very large in area, and the map is large-scale, then the structure is depicted as a black figure, similar in shape and size (on the map scale) to the structure itself. That is, this is already a large-scale sign. Often, at some distance from a village or town, there is a residential building with its own vegetable garden, orchard, and outbuildings.

For such a separate yard, or farm, there is a special topographic sign.

In populated areas, there are neighborhoods with a predominance of wooden (non-fire-resistant) and stone (fire-resistant) buildings. Topographic sign quarter of a settlement limited to thin black lines. Inside it, a background is either yellow (if wooden buildings predominate in the block) or orange (if fire-resistant stone buildings predominate in the block). On the background there are black rectangles - out-of-scale signs of individual houses, buildings or large-scale signs of individual large buildings. Next to the signs of some buildings their characteristics are given. For example: "SHK." - school, “SICK.” - hospital, “EL-ST.” - power plant, "SAN" - sanatorium.

The topographic fence sign is the thinnest black line on the map. This sign is often found on maps in the form of a broken closed line, which indicates some kind of fenced area.

If an industrial enterprise is depicted on a small-scale map, then it is necessary to use an out-of-scale sign of a plant (factory) with a pipe (meaning a tall pipe that can serve as a landmark visible at a fairly large distance) or without a pipe. Next to the sign is an abbreviated explanatory sign characterizing the type of product manufactured by the enterprise. For example: “brick” - brick factory, “flour.” - flour mill, “boom.” - paper mill, "sah." - sugar factory, etc.

If an industrial enterprise occupies a large area, then the usual large-scale signs are used, showing all or almost all buildings and structures on its territory: a fence, a factory building, workshops, warehouses, etc., while a half-blackened one is also placed here.

diagonally, an out-of-scale plant sign.

pipe under the road

Separate buildings

Khutor

Urban development

Plants and factories

Inside a populated area there may bechurch, monument or a monument cemetery . A cemetery can be small or large, with or without trees. PoeTherefore, to depict a cemetery, both large-scale andand an off-scale sign. On hikes and travels you can findeven in a deep forest there is a separate yard where he lives

forester and his family. Forester's house has its own topographic sign - an ordinary non-scale sign of a separate building with the inscription “forest.”

Important landmarks can be the various buildings basheared type- water towers, fire towers, silos. They are indicated by one out-of-scale sign, next to which an explanation is often given of what kind of tower it is.

Good landmarks are also high wooden towers, most often standing on the tops of hills, with an observation platform at the very top, where a ladder leads. These are the so-called triangulation points(they are called trigopunks for short). Next to the trigopoint sign on the map there is always some number that indicates the height of the base of the tower above the level of the Baltic Sea in meters and centimeters.

A sign resembling bricks stacked on top of each other - peat mining, that is, the place where peat is mined.

And the last of this group are very important local objects, the topographical signs of which you need to know, these are communication lines and power lines (power lines).

Communication lines are indicated on all maps, regardless of the nature of the connection, by a thin black line with black dots on it. The communication line sign is drawn on the map as the communication line itself goes on the ground.

Power lines(power lines) are on wooden poles or on metal and concrete supports. The power line sign consists of a thin black line on which dots or dashes with arrows are located at intervals of one centimeter.

If the power line is laid on wooden poles, then dots are placed, if on metal or concrete supports - short, thick lines.

Group No. 3. Hydrography

There are 8 basic signs in this group that you need to know.

While traveling on foot, tourists constantly “communicate” with the surface waters of the earth - they set up camp on the banks of rivers and lakes, lay routes along rivers, ford them, overcome swamps, ditches, and use springs to cook food over fires.

One of the main topographical signs of this group is river sign- can be both large-scale and non-scale (across the width of the river). The sign of a wide, large river consists of two elements - the outline of the coastlines of the river (as well as the coastline of the islands, if any), which is drawn with a thin blue line, and the fill sign - a blue background depicting the surface of the river, that is, the space occupied by water.

Church

monument

forester's house

tower

trig point

peat mining

Communication line

Power lines

Big river

Out-of-scale sign small river or stream is a simple thin blue line, which, however, gradually thickens from source to mouth.

There are streams that “live” only in spring and early summer, and then the water in them disappears. This peresflowing streams and rivers. The sign of such streams and rivers is a thin blue, but not solid, but a broken line

Information about where the river flows and what the speed of the flow is will also be provided by a topographic map with an explanatory sign of hydrography - a black arrow showing the direction of the river flow, and numbers placed in the middle of the arrow and showing the flow speed in meters per second.

Sea, lake, pond are depicted in the same way: the contours of the banks are shown with a thin blue line, and the water mirror is shown with a blue background.

In densely populated areas, wells located in populated areas are shown only on very large-scale maps (terrain plans). Sign well- a blue circle with a blue dot in the center.

Water sources(springs, springs) are also shown on topographic maps only when they do not dry up and have a significant amount of water. The sign of the source (spring) is a blue circle. If a constant stream flows from a spring, it is shown with the appropriate sign. If the water soon goes back into the ground, the stream sign is not shown.

Swamps There are two types: passable and difficult to pass (or even completely impassable), through which it is dangerous to move and it is better to avoid it. Accordingly, there are two signs of swamps: short blue horizontal strokes, grouped in the shape of irregular rhombuses - this is a passable swamp, but solid horizontal blue strokes - an impassable swamp. The boundaries of the swamps are outlined by a black dotted line.

And the last sign of this group is ditches, the signs of which are thin blue lines. This sign is similar to the sign of an ordinary stream, but its shape is sharply different from it: the line of the stream is always smoothly winding, while the lines of ditches are broken with long, smooth sections without bends.

Group No. 4. Vegetation

This group includes 15 topographical signs, most of which are area and, therefore, large-scale signs.

The first sign is land boundaries, that is, areas occupied by one or another natural or artificial vegetation. Every forest has an edge, every field, meadow, and swamp has an edge. These are their boundaries, which are shown on topographic maps with a small dotted black line. But the boundaries of the land are not always shown with a dotted line: if there is a road right along the edge of the forest or along the edge of the arable land, meadow, then the sign of this road replaces the boundary sign, that is, the road itself already delimits the forest from the field, the field from the meadow, the meadow from the swamp, etc. d. If a garden or cemetery is surrounded by a fence, then the fence is the boundary.

When carried out land boundaries with a dotted line (or some other sign) - that is, their contours are given, on both sides of the border a filling sign is given - a background and other icons that show what exactly the contour is occupied with, what kind of vegetation is in it.

Sign forests- green background. If the forest is old (as they say - ripe), then the background is made dark green, and if the forest is young (forest growth) - lightlo green. The same is depictedparks in populated areas.
It is important to know not only that this is a forest, but also what it is like - what kind of things are in itthe types of trees that grow, how densely they grow.
There are special explanatory signs for this
- characteristics tree stand. These signs representare images of small trees,signatures and numbers next to them. If in this forest(or parts of the forest) are dominated by coniferous trees,small Christmas trees are drawn on a green background, and if deciduous trees predominate - small birch trees, whose right sidethe crowns are made blackened. If the forest is mixed, both a Christmas tree andbirch tree Abbreviated signature on the leftsigns indicate what types of needlesTrees and deciduous trees predominate here.

The fraction to the right of these icons means the following: the numerator of the fraction is the average height of the trees in this forest in meters, the denominator is the average thickness of the trunks at the level of a person’s head in meters, and the coefficient behind the fraction is the average distance between the trees (that is, the density forests).

Found in forests clearings- long forest corridors. Such clearings are cut (cut) specifically so that the forest is better ventilated and illuminated by the sun. Most often, the clearings are made mutually perpendicular: some run from north to south, others cross them from west to east. Clearings come in different widths: from 2-3 to 10-12 m, and sometimes they are very wide - up to 50 meters or more. Such large clearings are made to lay gas pipelines, oil pipelines, highways, railways, and high-voltage power lines through forests.

Clearings divide the forest into blocks, and each forest block has its own number. At the intersections of the clearings there are quarter poles, on the edges of which these numbers are written in paint. Not every clearing has a road; there are very overgrown clearings, which are even more difficult to navigate than straight through the forest. But the topographic sign of the clearing exactly corresponds to the sign of a simple dirt road - a thin black dashed line. A number indicating its width in meters is also placed here.

For young growth forests, in addition to the light green background, an additional fill sign is used: small black circles go in rows along the background, but their rows are located at 45° to the map frames .

Orchards are also depicted with a green background with rows of small black circles, but here their rows go at 90° to the frames of the card.

Forest deforestation shown on a white background. The mark that fills the contour of the cutting is black vertical strokes arranged in a checkerboard pattern with a short black horizontal stroke at the lower end.

Sign woodlands also, as a rule, located on a white background in the form of black circles with a tail at the bottom, which is always directed to the east.

Large-scale topographic maps show separate groupsbushes in the form of a black circle with three thickened black dots along the outer edge. This is a non-scale sign. If the bushes occupy significant areas of the area, they are already shown as a contour (dotted line), which is filled inside with a light green background, and circles with three dots are scattered across the background in a random order.

Narrow strips of forest are depicted on maps without a green background as a chain of black circles. This is an out-of-scale forest belt sign. If the forest strip is wide enough for a given map scale, then it is depicted with a regular forest sign. There are also narrow strips of bushes (hedges). They are represented by an off-scale sign - a chain of small black circles alternating with thickened dots.

Along the roads there are often specially planted trees, forming a kind of green corridor along the road (alley). These are linings that are shown on maps as small black circles on the sides of the road.

free standing trees(not in the forest, but in the field), if they are large and have the significance of landmarks (that is, clearly visible from all sides at a sufficiently large distance), they are also indicated on topographic maps by their off-scale sign .

Meadows have their own sign: small black quotation marks are placed in a checkerboard pattern inside the contour delimiting the meadow. Meadows can occupy very large spaces and can stretch in narrow ribbons in the floodplains of rivers. Small clearings in the forest are also meadows. The sign of a passable swamp is almost always combined with the sign of a meadow, because such a swamp is always covered with grass.

Along the edges of the villages there are vegetable gardens. The vegetable garden sign has undergone a major change in the recent past: the old sign was obliquely hatched with solid and dashed lines in black, going in one direction or the other. New vegetable garden sign - gray background.

The last sign of this group, sign arable land,

This is a white background with a black dotted outline.

Group No. 5. Relief

The surface of our planet is very rarely flat. On any plain there are always at least small elevations and depressions: hills , mounds, depressions, ravines, pits, cliffs along river banks. All this taken together represents the topography of the area. Relief is a set of irregularities on the earth's surface. All irregularities can be easily divided into two types - convexity and concavity. Convexities are considered to be positive landforms, and concavities are considered negative landforms. Positive forms of relief include: mountain, hill (hillock), ridge, hill, mound, dune, sandy moving hill); to negative - basin, lowland, valley, gorge, ravine, beam, ravine, pit. Forms: reliefs always alternate in space: every positive form smoothly or abruptly turns into a negative one, and a negative one sharply or smoothly turns into a neighboring positive one.

It is customary to share flat terrain according to the nature of the relief by three type:lightly crossed, moderately crossed and strongly crossed terrain. The degree of ruggedness depends both on the frequency of alternation of convexities and concavities (ascents and descents), and on their height and steepness: where the “ruggedness” of the relief is stronger, that is, where ravines, hills, basins, gullies are more common, and where they are especially high (deep) and their slopes are steeper, the terrain is considered very rugged.

Each relief form has three parts (elements): the top or gold (for positive forms), the bottom (for negative forms), the bottom (for positive ones), the edge or edge (for negative ones) and the slopes or walls for both.

Slopes- a common element of both negative and positive relief forms. They are steep, steep (sharp) and gentle (smooth). Depending on the predominant slopes of the hills and lowlands in a given area, we say: there is a soft and smooth relief here, or there is a sharp, hard relief here.

There are two main ways to convey relief forms on maps: smooth, soft forms are depicted by so-called horizontal lines - thin brown lines, and sharp, hard forms - by a special line with jagged edges. These teeth, like any triangles, have a base and vertices. Where the tops of the teeth are directed, the slope descends there - it goes down almost a vertical cliff. To make it easy to distinguish a steep slope of natural origin from artificial cliffs on the map, jagged lines of cliffs are made in two colors - brown (natural cliffs along river valleys, ravines, etc.) and black (artificial embankments, dams, quarry slopes, etc. .). Next to the cliff signs there is a number indicating the length of the cliff in meters.

Pits and mounds can be naturalmi and artificial. They can bevery deep (high), but small in area, and then they have todepict out-of-scale on mapssigns. If they are significantny dimensions in area, then showing them indicated by scale marks (Fig. 74). The number next to the sign of the mound and pit also indicates their depth and height.

Embankments and excavations along the road are also depicted on maps as a jagged line, but in black color, since they are artificial structures. Where the teeth are directed with their sharp ends away from the railway or highway bed, the road goes along the embankment, and where they are directed on the contrary, towards the road bed, along the excavation. The numbers indicate the highest height of these slopes.

At the sign career, As a rule, an abbreviated caption is given on the maps, specifying what exactly is being mined in this quarry.

More complex rigid forms of relief are ravines, which are formed in loose sedimentary rocks under the influence of soil erosion by streams of rainwater and during snowmelt. Ravines are a “living” phenomenon; they are born, grow and gradually die. While the ravine is “young” (it is called ravine), its slopes are very steep, but gradually they crumble - they flatten out, become overgrown with turf, bushes, the ravine stops growing and turns into beam (logs)well, a hollow). A ravine has a top, bottom and mouth. From one ravine to the sides can have side ravines with their tops - their called screwdrivers ravine But screwdrivers, in turn, canmultiply, forming intricate branching.

Small River

Drying river

Sea, lake

well

spring, key

clearings

Orchard

felling open forest

bushes

Casing

Meadows

Hard landforms

Pits and mounds

Embankments and excavations

Career

Two typical representatives of soft landforms - antipodes Hill(tubercle) and basin(depression). You cannot show them with a jagged line on the map, since their slopes are gentle and smooth.

If you horizontally “cut”, dissect the figure of a hill into even “slices”, then the entire slope of the hill will be surrounded by several closed lines of “cuts” - horizontals. And if you then draw these lines on paper, you will get a figure that gives an idea of ​​the relief (Fig. 78). You just need to use short strokes on the horizontal lines to show in which direction the slopes go down, since exactly the same figure will be obtained if you cut through the basin with horizontal planes. Such strokes, showing the direction down from the horizontal, are called berg strokes or slope indicators (in German, “berg” means mountain).

This method of depicting soft landforms on maps andIt's called the method of contours. Beyond the beginning of the secants of the relief horizonThe plane of the Baltic Sea level is adopted for the tal planes.The next cutting plane is drawn, for example, 10 m higherlevel of the Baltic Sea, after another 10 m in height there is a second cutting plane, then, 10 m above it, a third (already at a height30 m above sea level), etc. This distance (h) between planes cutting the relief is called the height of the relief section and can be different: 2.5 m, 5 m, 10 m, 20 m, etc.

Each cutting plane will give on the map its own closed relief section line - a horizontal, and all together they will give a complete drawing of contours - a general picture of the terrain. But since there will be a lot of contour lines on the map, in order not to get confused in them, to make it easier to distinguish and trace them, we decided to highlight some of the contour lines a little - to make every fifth one thicker. Then the contour lines on the map, as they say, are better readable. Thus, with a section height of, for example, 5 m, the thickened horizontal will be the horizontal located 25 m above the level of the Baltic Sea; the next thickened one is 50 m above sea level, etc.

In addition, on some horizontal lines, in convenient places, numbers are written in brown, which indicate the height of this horizontal line in meters above sea level, or, as is customary in topography to call this value, the horizontal mark. The very number of the mark of one or another horizontal line, in addition to the berg strokes, helps to understand in which direction the slope goes down: where this number has a bottom, that’s where the slope goes down, and where there’s a top, that’s where the slope goes up. In addition, marks are placed on the tops of mountains and hills. The side of the hill, which is steeper, will be depicted on the map as contours located close to each other, and the other, flat side of the hill, on the contrary, will be depicted as sparse contours.

Between the tops of two neighboring hills that have a common base, there is always a depression. This depression is called a saddle. And under the saddle on
On the slopes of hills, gullies and ravines most often appear - hard forms of relief are always difficult to combine with
soft.

Group No. 6. Special signs

They try to place the labels of names on maps so that they do not cover important objects, and at the same time, they still have to make, for example, a gap in the signs of the road network where the signature of a settlement or the name of some other place is superimposed on the road sign local subject.

Signatures of the names of settlements are always made horizontally (direction west - east) in different fonts - in some places the letters of the inscription are thicker and taller, in others they are thinner and have a slight slope. Through such a difference in font, certain information is communicated to the map reader: approximate
number of inhabitants in a locality. Where there are more residents, there is a larger signature. Under each name of a settlement there are numbers that indicate the number of buildings (yards) in this village or town. Next to these numbers there are letters in some places

“SS”, indicating that in this locality there is a village council, that is, a local government authority.

On their homemade maps and diagrams, tourists often enter special symbols showing the route traveled by the tourist group and its direction, travel routes, places of overnight and day stays, places of daytime stops for lunch, and places of interest along the route.

3. Consolidation of the studied material.

1. What are symbols?

2. How many groups can topographic symbols be divided into?

3. List these groups?

4. List what is considered linear?

5. List what applies to areal types?

6. How many groups are topographic signs divided into?

4. Summing up the lesson.

The teacher draws conclusions, evaluates the activities of the students, and gives instructions for the next lesson.

5. Organizational moment.

The teacher tells further plans for the coming week.

The symbols on a map or plan are a kind of their alphabet, by which they can be read, find out the nature of the area, the presence of certain objects, and evaluate the landscape. As a rule, symbols on a map convey common features with geographical objects that exist in reality. The ability to decipher cartographic symbols is indispensable when making tourist trips, especially to distant and unfamiliar areas.

All objects indicated on the plan can be measured on a map scale to represent their actual size. Thus, the symbols on a topographic map are its “legend”, their decoding for the purpose of further orientation on the terrain. Homogeneous objects are indicated by the same color or stroke.

All outlines of objects located on the map, according to the method of graphic representation, are divided into several types:

• Area
• Linear
• Spot

The first type consists of objects that occupy a large area on a topographic map, which are expressed by areas enclosed within boundaries in accordance with the scale of the map. These are objects such as lakes, forests, swamps, fields.

Line symbols are outlines in the form of lines and can be seen on a map scale along the length of an object. These are rivers, railways or roads, power lines, clearings, streams, etc.

Dotted outlines (out-of-scale) indicate small objects that cannot be expressed on the map scale. These can be either individual cities or trees, wells, pipes and other small individual objects.

Symbols are applied in order to have as complete an idea as possible about the specified area, but this does not mean that absolutely all the smallest details of a real individual area or city have been identified. The plan indicates only those objects that are of great importance for the national economy, the Ministry of Emergency Situations, and military personnel.

Types of symbols on maps

To recognize map signs, you need to be able to decipher them. Conventional symbols are divided into scale, non-scale and explanatory.

• Scale symbols indicate local objects that can be expressed in size on the scale of a topographic map. Their graphic designation appears in the form of a small dotted line or thin line. The area inside the border is filled with symbols that correspond to the presence of real objects in this area. Using scale marks on a map or plan, you can measure the area and dimensions of a real topographical object, as well as its outline.
• Off-scale symbols indicate objects that cannot be displayed on a plan scale, the size of which cannot be judged. These are some separate buildings, wells, towers, pipes, kilometer posts, etc. Out-of-scale symbols do not indicate the dimensions of an object located on the plan, so it is difficult to determine the actual width or length of a pipe, elevator or free-standing tree. The purpose of off-scale symbols is to accurately indicate a specific object, which is always important when orienting yourself while traveling in an unfamiliar area. The exact location of the indicated objects is carried out by the main point of the symbol: this can be the center or lower middle point of the figure, the vertex of a right angle, the lower center of the figure, the axis of the symbol.
• Explanatory signs serve to disclose information about scale and non-scale designations. They give additional characteristics to objects located on a plan or map, for example, indicating the direction of river flow with arrows, designating the forest type with special signs, the load capacity of the bridge, the nature of the road surface, the thickness and height of the trees in the forest.

In addition, topographic plans contain other symbols that serve as additional characteristics for some of the specified objects:

• Signatures

Some signatures are used in full, others in abbreviated form. The names of settlements, rivers and lakes are fully deciphered. Abbreviated labels are used to indicate more detailed characteristics of certain objects.

• Digital legend

They are used to indicate the width and length of rivers, roads and railways, transmission lines, the height of points above sea level, the depth of fords, etc. The standard map scale designation is always the same and depends only on the size of this scale (for example, 1:1000, 1:100, 1:25000, etc.).

In order to make it as easy as possible to navigate a map or plan, symbols are indicated in different colors. More than twenty different shades are used to distinguish even the smallest objects, from intensely colored areas to less vibrant ones. To make the map easy to read, there is a table at the bottom with a breakdown of the color codes. So, usually water bodies are indicated by blue, cyan, turquoise; forest objects in green; terrain – brown; city ​​blocks and small settlements – gray-olive; highways and highways - orange; state borders are purple, neutral area is black. Moreover, neighborhoods with fire-resistant buildings and structures are indicated in orange, and neighborhoods with non-fire-resistant structures and improved dirt roads are indicated in yellow.

The unified system of symbols for maps and site plans is based on the following provisions:

• Each graphic sign always corresponds to a specific type or phenomenon.
• Each sign has its own clear pattern.
• If the map and plan differ in scale, objects will not differ in their designation. The only difference will be in their sizes.
• Drawings of real terrain objects usually indicate an associative connection with it, and therefore reproduce the profile or appearance of these objects.

To establish an associative connection between a sign and an object, there are 10 types of composition formation: