Types of geographical maps, their classification. What types of geographic maps are there? Maps showing multiple interconnected components
How to name cards offered by someone (without preparation)
1. Name all the cards without preparation.
This action requires excellent vision. Sit at the table, preferably with a burning candle, tilt your head slightly and hold your hands in front of your eyes, through your fingers, looking at the table, on which there should previously be a drop of water in a place convenient for you. Someone else must hold the deck of cards behind the candle so that the face of the card faces the person who is looking at the drop of water and must guess the card. The one who guesses the card sees it in a drop of water, as in a mirror, and can name all the other cards. You can do all this on a table that is well polished, then it will be even easier.The same can be done if you sit in front of a mirror so that you can see yourself in the mirror. Then you need to hold the deck of cards in front of your face so that the front side faces the people and the mirror. When guessing a card, you need to take a fleeting glance in the mirror, see the card and lower your head, looking at the table, as if intensely thinking what kind of card it is, then in this case no one will ever guess that you see the card in the mirror.
2. Name the cards in order, holding the deck of cards in front of your forehead.
Divide the deck into two halves. Spectators must sit or stand opposite you. Raise the deck in front of you higher so that you can see the front side of one half, and the audience is looking at the front side of the other half of the deck, which you noticed the first card. After this, name this card, and notice the front card of the back half, which is facing you. Do this quickly with the entire deck, discarding the cards, turning the deck, shuffling it so that the half of the deck that was facing you before is always facing the viewer.3
. From three or more piles of cards, find out the top cards. While shuffling the cards, notice the bottom card and place it on top of the deck, let's say this card is the queen of hearts. Then have the spectator remove it 2 times so that there are 3 stacks of cards on the table. Now the top one card of one of the piles is known (the card of the third pile), only the top of the other two piles are unknown. They can be recognized this way: let’s say the top card of the first pile is 10 hearts, remove it from the pile and say that this card is the queen of hearts, do not show the card to the audience. The removed card from the first pile, for example, turned out to be 8 clubs, then say that the top card of the second pile will be 8 clubs, remove this card from the second pile without showing the spectator that the card from the second pile turned out to be an ace of spades, and then call the top card third stack with the ace of spades, and remove the card with the queen of hearts. As a result, you will have 3 cards you guessed in your hands.4 . Let the spectator allow him to give from the piles according to the card that is shown, having looked at it.
This trick is a slight modification of the trick described above in paragraph 3. The magician shuffles the cards, makes 4-5 piles and calls any spectator, pointing him to the top card of one pile, then names it and asks to give him this card. He takes the card to himself and does the same with the top card of the other pile, after which he asks which card he asked for, and without looking, shows it. Knowing the top card of one pile, the magician demands it, and does this when he asks someone to take out a card from the pile, and he himself takes the last one.5 . Name a number of cards that were noticed by the audience.
Place 20 cards on the table, two cards side by side, then have any spectator come up and look at any two cards that are lying together. Then collect all the cards, just do not knock down the cards lying together, and arrange them according to the following words: “Uncle’s cup is dear to your aunt.”In these words, each letter occurs 2 times and the cards lying next to them are laid out according to the same letters. After which you need to ask the spectator in which row his cards are located and determine them using the above words. Let's say the spectator says that his cards are in the first row, then these cards will be the second and fourth.
In order to better separate the 10 pairs of cards lying next to each other and to make everything look clearer for the performer of the trick, you can resort to the tables shown above, where in the first table the cards of the first pair are designated 1st, and the cards of the second pair are designated 2nd.
6
. Find again the card that the spectator took out. The performer of the trick must shuffle the cards and notice the bottom card in the deck, then he must allow the spectator to take out any card from the deck, notice it and put it on the table, and then cover it with the entire deck. Then remove and remove again and so on as many times as you like. If you then count the cards so that the front side of the deck, which lies in your hand, is at the top, then the card taken out and noticed will be the one that lies in front of the card that was originally the lowest in the deck.7
. Not only can you find the drawn card, but also show it according to the given number. To do this, you need to do as described in step 6 and after removing it, look at the card under the table, then find it, take it out and put it on top of the deck. Now, when the spectator asks what was the card taken out, then you need to hold the deck behind your back and throw the cards on the table, one after another, until the required number comes out, according to which the top intended card is removed and shown.8 . Guess the selected card.
To guess the chosen card, take 21 cards from the deck, put them in 3 rows and ask someone to notice the card and then ask which row the card is in. Next, mix the cards, only each pile separately, and if the pile lies one on top of the other, then the pile with the spectator’s card should be in the middle. Then arrange the other 3 rows so that the top card is first in relation to the first row, the second is first in relation to the second row, and the third is first in relation to the third row and so on, only so that one card goes in the first row, one in the second and one in third row. Now, if they ask in which row the noticed card is found, then put the rows together again and lay them out as described above and count the cards from either side, the noticed card will be in the eleventh place.9 . Of the thirty-three cards, name the noticed card.
This trick is a joke, since everything is done the opposite of what is indicated in paragraph 8. 11 cards are placed in each row and the noticed card will be in 17th place.10 . Of the twenty-seven cards, name the noticed card.
This trick is also a joke and is done with changes to paragraphs 9 and 10. In this case, 9 cards are placed in each row and done as in step 9. The noticed card will be in the fourteenth place.11 . Find the card with your eyes closed.
To do this, the magician must take the entire deck in his hand and look at the bottom card, then shuffle the cards so that the bottom card is on top of the deck and then lay out the deck into 6 piles of cards with an arbitrary number. The bottom pile, in which the top card is exactly the one that the magician noticed, is laid out on the remaining piles so that the top card remains in the hand. All this is done to confuse the audience. The magician closes his eyes and gives this top card to the spectator.12. Show four spectators on the map and then find them.
Place 16 cards in 4 rows. Then take the first row of cards and give them to the spectators. 4 spectators must remember one card from this row. For example, these spectators will be: spectator - A, spectator - B, spectator - C, spectator - D. For the first time, 16 cards must be laid out transversely in this sequence.The second time, the cards should be laid out lengthwise in the following sequence.
Spectator A has from the 1st to the 4th, B from the 5th to 8th, C from the 9th to 12th, D from the 13th to 16th cards, but the card which everyone noticed, the magician must guess. The unfolding must happen quickly so that the audience cannot understand anything.
The magician asks spectator A which row his card is in. To which A replies that in the first, then his card is first, because it can be one of the cards from 1st to 4th. If B says that in the second row, then this means that the card lies between the cards 2 6 10 14, then he must have noticed card 6 then that he was given a choice of cards from the 5th to the 8th. In this way, you can tell each spectator the card that he noticed.
13. Give the spectator the spotted card after the cards have been shuffled.
The magician shuffles a deck of cards under the table, unnoticed by everyone, spies the bottom card, after which he counts out any number of cards, for example, 5 cards and places the bottom noticed card between the counted cards of the rest of the deck. Therefore, the noticed card will be the sixth. After this, he puts the card on the table, removes several cards, sometimes from above, sometimes from below, and places them on the table, but when opening them carefully, so as not to remove more cards than were counted, the noticed card will be the top one. Next, from the cards removed and lying on the table, you can ask someone to choose one card and put it on the cards that the magician is holding in his hand, that is, on the card that was noticed. Then the magician collects all the other cards on the table into a deck and shuffles them, also carefully so as not to separate the above cards. If you look at the deck from below so that the front side is in front of your eyes, then the card that comes after the one you noticed will be the same card that was chosen by the other.14 . Find the card that was drawn and put back into the deck.
The magician shuffles the deck of cards in full view of the audience, then allows any spectator to pull out any card, after which the spectator places the card anywhere on the deck, and the magician must place the finger of his left hand between the card taken out and the card lying under it. After this, the magician takes the bottom cards with his right hand and begins to shuffle them so that the noticed card always remains at the bottom. Then, with the air of a searching person, the magician tries to find a card in the deck, of course he finds it and shows it to all the spectators.15 . How to guess a card by weighing.
The magician takes a deck of cards, lets the spectator take out one card and remember its meaning. Then the magician carefully examines the back of the card to see if there are any signs and appears as if he is weighing the card. Then he puts it back into the deck and pretends as if he were weighing each card, but at the same time he looks for exactly the one on the back of which there was some sign.16. Guessed cards.
In this case, the magician uses a deck with identical cards. Three spectators each take out one card and place them back into the deck in random order. The magician steps aside and pretends to be examining the cards, but in fact he puts in two other cards specially prepared for this. With one of the same cards and both cards inserted, the magician approaches each of the spectators and asks whether the spectator's card is between these three cards. Of course, he receives an answer that there is such a card and then he shows the identical cards noticed by the audience. In this case, three spectators should be at some distance from each other so that none of them notices that they were taking out the same card.17
. Forced card selection. The magician lays out approximately 15 cards, among which only one card has a figure and is clearly visible; all the other cards are sixes, sevens, eights. Of the cards laid out in this way, the magician asks to notice one card, most likely it will be a figured card. After this, the cards are mixed and it is pretended that they are carefully examined and without much effort the magician calls this card.18 . Previously seen card.
The magician takes from twenty to thirty cards in his right hand and holds them face down. Meanwhile, he notices the bottom card and moves it until it lies in the middle under the cards and can easily be moved in any direction with his fingers. Then the magician invites any spectator to take one card, the bottom card is pushed to where the card taken out lay, other nearby ones are taken away, placed on top, then the cards are shuffled and the bottom known card is shown and the magician says that the card has been taken out and other spectators can also see it.General concepts of cartography
Since human society began to develop, there has been a need to display and store certain information. Since the emergence of man's first knowledge of the world around him, the question of the transfer of information of a geographical nature has arisen.
An important object of geographical information was the earth's surface, territory. One of the main ways of transmitting information about the earth's surface was its outline. This is how the geographical map appeared. But in order to depict part of the territory, it was necessary to reduce the image to fit it on the drawing sheet.
Definition 1
Geographic map - this is a drawing of a section of the earth’s surface, made using conventional symbols and to a certain scale.
Definition 2
Scale is a mathematical expression that indicates how many times an image is enlarged or reduced compared to its actual dimensions.
Types of map projections
Let's not forget that the Earth is a sphere, and the map is a plane. Therefore, to transfer an image from a spherical surface to a plane, the projection method is used.
A map projection is a method of transferring an image of the earth's surface from a sphere to a plane. Depending on the relative position of the sphere and the plane, the following main types of map projections are distinguished:
- azimuthal ;
Sometimes combined projections are used - polyconical, pseudoconical and pseudocylindrical. The main purpose of projections is to reduce image distortion that inevitably occurs when transferring an image from a sphere to a plane. It is impossible to completely avoid distortions. They just need to be taken into account.
The following types of distortion are distinguished:
- length distortions;
- distortion of corners;
- distortion of areas and distortion of shapes.
Depending on the projection chosen, we may reduce the effect of one distortion, but some other distortion will be increased. Only on the globe there is practically no distortion. On topographic maps, due to the small area of the depicted territory, distortions are so insignificant that they can be neglected.
Types of geographical maps
Depending on the content of the information depicted, geographical maps are divided into thematic and general geographical. Thematic maps show the location of objects that clearly relate to a specific topic (vegetation, fauna, population, economy, natural phenomena, etc.).
General geographic maps display all geographical objects of the area in equal detail: relief, reservoirs, settlements, etc.
Cards are also divided into separate groups according to their purpose. There are maps for educational, tourist, reference, cultural and educational, propaganda, etc.
In addition to individual maps, geographic atlases are often used - complete collections of maps.
Classification of maps by scale
The terrain on maps is depicted at a certain scale. Depending on the scale, maps are divided into:
- large scale (topographical) – with a scale of $1:$100,000 or more;
- medium-scale (survey-topographical) – with a scale of $1:200,000 – 1:1,000,000$;
- small-scale (review) – with a scale of less than $1: $1,000,000.
Classification of maps by territory coverage
Depending on the territories depicted on the maps, maps are divided into maps of the world (including maps of the hemispheres), maps of individual continents and oceans, maps of individual countries, maps of parts of countries (regions). The greater the coverage of the mapped territory, the less details and details the map contains. Otherwise, on a small surface there will be a large number of difficult to distinguish symbols.
Definition 3
Selecting the most important objects for the image is called cartographic generalization .
Classification of geographical maps marina3107 wrote in April 7th, 2011
Belyaeva Marina, 2 k., 3 gr.
Geographic map- this is a reduced and generalized image of a spherical earth's surface on a plane using conventional symbols, made on a certain scale.
Classification of cards is a system that represents a set of cards, subdivided (ordered) according to some selected characteristic.
Dividing maps by scale.
The following classification of maps by scale is accepted:
I) plans - I:5,000 and larger;
2) large-scale maps from I:I0 000 to I:200 000;
3) medium-scale maps - smaller than I:200,000 to I:I,000,000;
4) small-scale maps - smaller than I:I 000 000.
Maps of different scales have different details and accuracy, different generalization and, often, different meaning. Consequently, the scale of the map allows us to judge the features of its content.
Classification of maps by spatial coverage. As the largest division, we can distinguish maps of the starry sky, then maps depicting one planet, and, further, maps of the largest planetary structures (for the Earth, these are continents and oceans). After this, classification can proceed in two ways: by administrative-territorial division or by natural zoning.
One of the most commonly used classifications is as follows:
star maps;
maps of planets and Earth;
hemisphere maps;
maps of continents and oceans;
country maps;
maps of republics, territories, regions, administrative districts;
maps of individual territories (reserves, tourist areas, etc.);
city maps;
maps of urban areas, etc.
TO Ocean art can be further divided into maps of seas, bays, straits, and harbors.
In addition to this classification, other divisions are possible, for example, the allocation of a group of maps of economic regions covering several administrative units (Northwestern economic region, etc.), or maps of large natural regions, such as the European part of Russia, the Far East.
Classification of cards by content. There are two large groups of cards: general geographical and thematic. General geographical maps display all geographical elements of the area in equal detail: relief, hydrography, soil and vegetation cover, settlements, economic facilities, communication routes, communication lines, borders, etc.
General geographical maps are subdivided to topographic(scale I:I00 000 and larger), survey-topographical(I:200,000 - I:I,000,000) and review(smaller than I:I 000 000).
The second large group consists thematic, showing the location, relationships and dynamics of natural phenomena, population, economy and culture. Among thematic maps, there are two main groups: maps of natural phenomena and maps of social phenomena.
Natural Phenomena Maps cover all components of the natural environment and their combinations. This group includes maps of geological, geophysical, relief of the earth's surface and ocean floor, meteorological and climatic, oceanographic, hydrological (land waters), soil, botanical, zoogeographical, medical-geographical, general physical-geographical, landscape, nature conservation.
Maps of social phenomena include maps of population, economic, science and culture, public services and health care, political and political-administrative, historical. This group of maps is extensive and diverse, it is constantly expanding due to new themes that characterize modern society and economy with all the progressive and negative aspects of its development.
TO Each of these divisions contains a large number of different thematic maps. For example, economic maps include maps of industry (in general and by individual types), agriculture, forestry, fisheries, energy, transport and communications, trade and finance, agro-industrial complexes, general economic and economic zoning. It should also be noted that maps of border (interdisciplinary) themes reflect the close interaction of nature, society and economy. These are maps of economic assessment of natural resources, agroclimatic, engineering-geological and many others. Research at the intersection of different branches of knowledge is a characteristic feature of modern science, this is reflected in the development of maps of interdisciplinary, complex topics.
Classification of cards by purpose. The purpose of cards is as varied as the areas of human activity, but some types of cards are distinguished quite clearly.
Scientific reference maps are intended to carry out scientific research on them and obtain the most detailed, scientifically reliable information.
Cultural, educational and propaganda cards intended for the general public. Their goal is to disseminate knowledge, ideas, and expand people's cultural horizons. Such maps usually have a bright, simple, intelligible design; they are complemented by diagrams, drawings, and poster elements.
Technical maps display objects and conditions necessary to solve a technical problem. This group includes space navigation, aero- and sea navigation, road maps, as well as some engineering maps.
Educational cards used as visual aids or materials for independent work in the study of geography, geology, history and other disciplines. There are cards for primary, secondary, and high schools.
Tourist cards designed for tourists and vacationers. They depict objects of interest for tourism: historical monuments, nature reserves, museums, as well as hotels, tourist centers, campsites. The maps are colorfully designed and are accompanied by signs and reference information.
Types of cards. The type of map characterizes the breadth of coverage of the topic and the degree of generalization of the phenomena being mapped. In modern cartography, it is customary to distinguish three main types of maps: analytical, complex and synthetic.
Maps are called analytical, giving an image of individual phenomena (or even individual properties of phenomena) without connection with other phenomena (properties). An example is maps of air temperature, precipitation, winds, pressure, which are analytical climate maps.
Complex cards combine images of several elements of similar themes, a set of characteristics of one phenomenon. For example, on one map you can show both pressure and winds in an area. Combining two or three phenomena on one map allows you to consider them as a whole, juxtapose, compare, and analyze relationships.
Synthetic cards reflect a set of interrelated phenomena as a single whole. On such maps there are no characteristics of individual components, but their integral assessment is given. For example, a climate zoning map is synthetic; it does not contain specific data on temperatures, precipitation, wind speeds, etc., but there is a general assessment of the climate of the selected areas. Synthetic maps are inference maps built on the basis of a generalization of data contained in sets of analytical and complex maps.
Geographical atlases. Atlases- these are systematic, holistic collections of maps created according to a single program. Like maps, atlases are classified by spatial coverage, distinguishing atlases of the planet (Earth, Moon, Venus), continents and oceans, large geographic regions, states, republics, administrative regions, cities. Based on their content, atlases are distinguished between physical and geographical (geological, climatic, etc.), socio-economic and historical.
Of greatest practical importance is classification of atlases by purpose.
Reference atlases- These are usually general geographical and political-administrative atlases that convey general geographical objects in as much detail as possible: settlements, relief, hydrography, road network. These atlases are particularly detailed regarding geographical nomenclature, and are accompanied by extensive name indexes.
Comprehensive scientific reference atlases- capital cartographic works that provide the most complete, scientifically based and versatile characteristics of the territory. These atlases reflect many components of nature, economy, population and culture, their relationships and dynamics. Scientific reference atlases can be called cartographic encyclopedias for a given territory.
Popular (local history) atlases are intended for the general reader, they are publicly available and addressed to students studying their native land, tourists and local historians, hunters and fishermen. Such atlases are usually accompanied by photographs, drawings, basic reference data on the territory, and a list of historical attractions.
Educational atlases are focused on serving the educational process at school and in higher educational institutions. The set of maps in the atlases, the degree of their detail and the depth of disclosure of the content are in accordance with the curriculum (for example, atlases on geography, history for 5, 6 and other grades).
Tourist and road atlases designed to satisfy the needs of tourists, athletes, car enthusiasts, and travelers. They depict in detail tourist sites, networks of roads and railways, pedestrian, water, and automobile routes.
Cards can be divided into groups according to different criteria, the main ones being: coverage of territory, scale, content. Minor signs: purpose, object, method of image capture.
Differences in maps based on territory coverage:
- world and hemisphere maps (maps that depict the entire earth's surface: a world map or a map of the Western and Eastern hemispheres);
- maps of continents and oceans (maps depicting, as a rule, larger parts of the earth's surface);
- states and their parts .
Differences in map scale:
When creating a map, a strict selection is made of what will be depicted and written on it. This selection is called cartographic generalization. As a rule, the smaller the scale of the map, the fewer objects are shown on it, i.e., the stricter its generalization. An important role in cartographic generalization is played by the purpose of the map and its subject matter.
Differences between cards in content.
Depending on the content, all cards are divided into general geographical And thematic.
General geographical maps display with approximately the same detail the main elements of the area: relief, rivers, lakes, vegetation, settlements, roads, borders, etc. General geographic maps include, for example, topographic maps on which territories are shown in great detail.
On thematic maps, on the contrary, depict one or two components of nature, economy, population, for example, relief and water, climate, soil. On a general geographic map, these components are either absent or not fully reflected. The content of thematic maps is determined by the topic to which they are devoted. For example, a soil map shows the placement of soil types. on the climate map - the distribution of temperatures, precipitation, wind directions. The remaining elements of these maps (large cities, rivers, etc.) serve only as background and are necessary as landmarks.
Sometimes thematic maps show not one or two, but several different but interrelated components or phenomena. Then they are called complex maps .
Differences between cards based on other characteristics (non-basic)
By purpose: reference, educational, tourist, agricultural, etc. By object: continental, marine, astronomical, planetary. By image fixation method: ground, aerospace, underwater.
Site plan
Site plan– a drawing of the area, made in conventional symbols and on a large scale (1:5000 and larger).
The construction of plans is carried out during visual, instrumental or combined surveys directly on the ground or on the basis of deciphering aerial photographs. The plans reflect a small area (several kilometers), and therefore, when constructing them, the curvature of the earth's surface is not taken into account. The elements of the plan include symbols, definition of directions, and scale.
The difference between a plan and a map:
Plans depict small areas of terrain, so they are built on a large scale (for example, 1 cm - 5 m). Maps show much larger territories, their scale is smaller;
When constructing a plan, the curvature of the earth's surface is not taken into account, since a small area of terrain is depicted. When constructing a map, it is always taken into account. Maps are built in certain map projections;
There is no degree network on the plans. Parallels and meridians must be marked on the map;
on the plan, the direction to the north is considered to be up, the direction to the south is down, to the west is to the left, to the east is to the right (sometimes on the plan the north-south direction is shown by an arrow that does not coincide with the up-down direction). On maps, the direction north - south is determined by meridians, west - east - by parallels.
the plan depicts the area in detail, preserving the exact outlines of the objects depicted, but only in a reduced form. The large scale of the plan allows you to reflect on it almost all objects located on the ground. It is not possible to plot all objects on a map that has a smaller scale, so when creating maps, objects are generalized. The exact outlines of all objects on the map also cannot be shown, so they are distorted to one degree or another. Many objects on the map, unlike the plan, are depicted by non-scale symbols;
Mapping methods used to display phenomena on thematic maps:
- high quality background. Area symbols on thematic maps are often used to identify territories based on certain characteristics. Qualitatively different territories are painted with different colors, different shading;
- habitats(area of distribution of a phenomenon). The corresponding areas are delimited on the map by closed lines, highlighted by shading or shading, marked with inscriptions or individual letters, covered with contour icons or indicated by drawings;
- spot. Features of the placement of objects that have a widespread or limited distribution with different densities can be displayed on the map by placing points. Where the displayed objects are highly concentrated, the points are condensed, and in other cases they are sparse. The value of the indicator that corresponds to one point on the map is called weight. When there are sharp differences in the concentrations of objects, points of two or more sizes are often used, each of which is determined by the corresponding weight;
- isolines. Isolines connect points on the map with the same values of any indicators. Isolines connecting points with the same absolute height - horizontal. The height distance between two adjacent horizontal lines taken on the same slope is called the section height, and the distance between the horizontal lines according to the plan is called the laying. The steeper the slope, the smaller the amount of foundation, and vice versa. To determine the steepness of the slope, the shortest distance between adjacent horizontal lines is measured and the corresponding position is selected on a scale, against which the steepness of the slope is read in degrees. To determine the direction of the slope along the horizontal lines, perpendicular lines are placed on some of them - slope indicators (berg strokes), “looking” with their free end in the downward direction;
- icons. Off-scale conventional signs, or, as they are usually called, icons, are very diverse in appearance - from a simple circle or square to intricate drawings;
- linear signs. Used on maps to display phenomena and objects located in nature along certain lines;
- traffic signs. Lines indicate the paths of expeditions, the directions of winds, currents, cargo flows, military operations of troops, etc. These are stripes or arrows of different shapes and colors, showing the direction and axial lines of movement, its nature and intensity;
- localized diagrams. A method of depicting periodic phenomena (the frequency of annual and daily variations in temperature, precipitation, tides, wind direction and strength, wind waves, current speed, etc.) by placing diagrams on the map assigned to certain points;
- map diagrams, cartograms. These methods clearly display various ratios of certain indicators. Here the boundaries of the regions must be delineated, within which the magnitude of a particular phenomenon is indicated. In each individual case, depending on the quantitative indicators, cartographers develop a special scale with the help of which this factor is displayed most clearly.
