What are the types of geographic maps? Appearance of the card: what does a bank card look like and what information does a bank card have? Cards showing several interconnected components

How to name cards suggested by someone (without preparation)

1. Name all cards without preparation.

5 . Name a number of cards that were seen by the audience.

eight . Guess the chosen card.

9 . Of the thirty-three cards, name the seen card.

10 . Of the twenty-seven cards, name the seen card.

1one . Find a card with closed eyes.

12. Show four spectators around the map and then find them.

13 . Give the spectator the seen card after the cards have been shuffled.

1four . Find a card drawn and put back into the deck.

15 . How to guess a card by weighing.

16. Guessed cards.

eighteen . Previously seen map.

Classification of geographical maps marina3107 wrote in April 7th, 2011

Belyaeva Marina, 2 K., 3 gr.

Geographic map- this is a reduced and generalized image of a spherical earth's surface on a plane using conventional signs, made on a certain scale.

Map classification- this is a system representing a set of cards subdivided (ordered) according to some chosen feature.

Division of maps by scale. The following classification of maps by scale is accepted:
I) plans - I:5 000 and larger;
2) large-scale maps from I:I0000 to I:200000;
3) medium-scale maps - smaller than I:200,000 to I:I,000,000;
4) small-scale maps - smaller than I:I 000 000.
Maps of different scales have different detail and accuracy, different generalization and, often, different meanings. Therefore, the scale of the map makes it possible to judge the features of its content.

Classification of maps by spatial coverage. As the largest division, one can single out maps of the starry sky, then maps depicting a single planet, and, further, maps of the largest planetary structures (for the Earth, these are continents and oceans). After that, the classification can go in two ways: by administrative-territorial division or by natural zoning.
One of the most commonly used classifications is as follows:
star charts;
maps of the planets and the Earth;
hemispheric maps;
maps of continents and oceans;
country maps;
maps of republics, territories, regions, administrative regions;
maps of individual territories (reserves, tourist areas, etc.);
city ​​maps;
maps of urban areas, etc.
To Ocean charts can be further divided into charts of seas, bays, straits, harbors.
In addition to this classification, other subdivisions are also possible, for example, the selection of a group of maps of economic regions covering several administrative units (North-Western economic region, etc.), or maps of large natural regions, such as the European part of Russia, the Far East.

Classification of maps by content. There are two large groups of cards: general geographical and thematic. General geographic maps all geographical elements of the terrain are displayed with equal detail: relief, hydrography, soil and vegetation cover, settlements, economic objects, communication routes, communication lines, borders, etc.
General geographic maps subdivided to topographic(in scale I:I00 000 and larger), survey and topographic(I:200 000 - I:I 000 000) and review(smaller I:I 000 000).

The second large group is thematic, showing the location, relationships and dynamics of natural phenomena, population, economy and culture. Among thematic maps, two main groups are distinguished: maps of natural phenomena and maps of social phenomena.
Maps of natural phenomena cover all components of the natural environment and their combinations. This group includes geological, geophysical, relief maps of the earth's surface and the bottom of the oceans, meteorological and climatic, oceanographic, hydrological (land waters), soil, botanical, zoogeographic, medical-geographical, general physical-geographical, landscape, nature conservation.
Maps of social phenomena include maps of the population, economic, science and culture, public services and health care, political and political-administrative, historical. This group of maps is vast and varied, it is constantly expanding due to new topics that characterize modern society and economy with all the progressive and negative aspects of its development.
To Each of these divisions contains a large number of different thematic maps. For example, economic maps include maps of industry (in general and for individual types), agriculture, forestry, fisheries, energy, transport and communications, trade and finance, agro-industrial complexes, general economic and economic zoning. It should also be noted maps of border (interdisciplinary) themes, reflecting the close interaction of nature, society and economy. Such are maps of the economic evaluation of natural resources, agro-climatic, engineering-geological and many others. Research at the intersection of different branches of knowledge is a characteristic feature of modern science; this is reflected in the development of maps of interdisciplinary, complex topics.

Classification of cards by purpose. The purpose of the cards is as diverse as the spheres of human activity, but some types of cards stand out quite clearly.
Scientific reference cards designed to carry out scientific research on them and obtain the most detailed, scientifically reliable information.
Cultural, educational and propaganda cards intended for the general public. Their goal is to disseminate knowledge, ideas, and expand the cultural horizons of people. Such cards usually have a bright, simple, intelligible design, they are complemented by diagrams, drawings, poster elements.
Technical cards display the objects and conditions necessary to solve any technical problem. This group includes space navigation, air and sea navigation, road, and some engineering maps.
Educational cards are used as visual aids or materials for independent work in the study of geography, geology, history and other disciplines. Allocate cards for elementary, middle, high school.
Tourist cards intended for tourists and vacationers. They depict objects of interest for tourism: historical monuments, reserves, museums, as well as hotels, tourist centers, campsites. The maps are colorful, accompanied by pointers and reference information.

Card types. The type of the map characterizes the breadth of coverage of the topic, the degree of generalization of the mapped phenomena. In modern cartography, it is customary to distinguish three main types of maps: analytical, complex and synthetic.
Analytical cards are called, giving an image of individual phenomena (or even individual properties of phenomena) without connection with other phenomena (properties). An example is maps of air temperature, precipitation, winds, pressure, which are analytical climate maps.
Complex maps combine images of several elements of similar subjects, a set of characteristics of one phenomenon. For example, one map can show both pressure and winds in an area. The combination of two or three phenomena on one map allows you to consider them in a complex, compare, compare, analyze relationships.
Synthetic cards reflect a set of interrelated phenomena as a whole. Such maps lack the characteristics of individual components, but their integral assessment is given. For example, a map of climatic zoning is synthetic, it does not contain specific data on temperatures, precipitation, wind speeds, etc., but there is a general assessment of the climate of selected areas. Synthetic maps are inference maps built on the basis of generalization of data contained in sets of analytical and complex maps.

Geographic atlases. Atlases- these are systematic, integral collections of maps created according to a single program. Like maps, atlases are classified according to spatial coverage, highlighting atlases of the planet (Earth, Moon, Venus), continents and oceans, large geographical regions, states, republics, administrative regions, cities. According to the content, atlases are physical and geographical (geological, climatic, etc.), socio-economic and historical.
Of greatest practical importance is classification of atlases by purpose.
Reference atlases- these are usually general geographic and political-administrative atlases that convey general geographical objects in as much detail as possible: settlements, relief, hydrography, road network. These atlases are particularly detailed in terms of geographical nomenclature and are accompanied by extensive indexes of names.
Comprehensive scientific reference atlases- major cartographic works that provide the most complete, scientifically substantiated and versatile characteristics of the territory. These atlases reflect many components of nature, economy, population and culture, their interrelations and dynamics. Scientific reference atlases can be called cartographic encyclopedias for a given territory.
Popular (local history) atlases intended for the general reader, they are publicly available and addressed to students studying their native land, tourists and local historians, hunters and fishermen. Such atlases are usually accompanied by photographs, drawings, basic reference data on the territory, and a list of historical sights.
Educational atlases focused on serving the educational process at school, in higher educational institutions. The set of maps in atlases, the degree of their detail and the depth of disclosure of the content are in accordance with the curriculum (for example, atlases in geography, history for grades 5, 6 and other).
Tourist and road atlases designed to meet the needs of tourists, athletes, motorists, travelers. They depict in detail tourist sites, networks of roads and railways, pedestrian, water, and automobile routes.

According to the degree of generalization of indicators thematic maps are divided into analytical, synthetic and complex.

4.1.1. Analytical maps

To analytical include maps that give a specific description of one or more natural or socio-economic phenomena, without showing the links and interactions between them. For them, non-generalized or slightly generalized indicators are used, often obtained on the basis of a single observation (on observation maps). For example, maps of individual meteorological elements characterizing their magnitude at a particular moment or period of time (Fig. 4.1): air temperature, atmospheric pressure, precipitation, winds, etc.; or maps of the steepness of slopes, depths, density of dissection of the relief, etc. Analytical maps provide information on certain sides or properties of objects and phenomena, they tend to abstract from the whole.

Rice. 4.1. Analytical map of the actual weather

The strength of analytical mapping is that it allows, as it were, to “divide” an object into its component parts, to consider them separately, or even to highlight the elements of these parts. Such a "dismemberment" can be as detailed as you like, it all depends on the depth of the analysis. At the initial stages of the analytical study of an object, maps show the main elements of its structure, material composition, special features and properties. But as knowledge is accumulated and methods improved, analytical maps reflect more and more subtle features and details of the structure. So, when studying the relief, more and more “fine” methods of mathematical modeling are used, obtaining more and more detailed analytical maps, for example, maps of the horizontal and vertical curvature of the surface, maps of second derivatives characterizing the rate of change of slopes, maps of height dispersion, etc. The possibilities for analysis are almost endless.
However, it must be borne in mind that the concept of "analytical map" is, in a certain sense, relative. For example, a map of daily temperatures is undoubtedly an analytical map in relation to a map of average monthly, and even more so, average annual temperatures. But the map of average annual temperatures can also be considered analytical if we put it in line with maps of pressure, precipitation, evaporation, prevailing winds - all of them characterize only individual elements of the climate. Such is the dialectic of any analysis, which is inextricably linked with synthesis.
Close to analytical are the so-called private , or industry , cards. They have a narrow theme, show in detail any particular industry. Most often, when talking about sectoral maps, they mean socio-economic topics related to individual sectors of industrial or agricultural production. It is customary to consider maps of mechanical engineering, textile, chemical, food and other industries or maps of beet growing, cotton growing, sheep breeding, poultry farming, etc. to be industry-specific.

4.1.2. Synthetic cards

Synthetic maps provide a holistic spatial display of phenomena as a result of the interpretation of the most significant indicators, their connection and generalization, taking into account the links between them. An example is maps of climatic zoning, agricultural specialization of regions, and landscape maps, on which the corresponding regions (regions) are distinguished according to the totality of many indicators.
Synthetic maps are usually created by integrating data reflected in a series of analytical maps. With a small number of synthesized indicators, this can be done manually, but in more complex cases, it is necessary to use mathematical modeling methods.
Note that synthetic maps always have quite detailed, sometimes even cumbersome legends. In explanations of the integral assessment, they try to reflect many of the initial parameters.
Methods for creating synthetic maps have been especially improved with the introduction of geographic information systems that operate simultaneously with dozens of layers of information. GIS includes special procedures for data synthesis. In particular, this gave impetus to the broad development of synthetic ecological-geographical mapping of the living conditions of the population based on taking into account a complex of natural, economic and social parameters. It is even possible to combine several synthetic indicators on one map.

Rice. 4.2. Synthetic map. Agricultural specialization zones in the south of Azerbaijan

Sometimes, on the same map, a synthetic image is combined with some analytical indicators. For example, on economic maps, agricultural zoning is given in a synthetic generalization, while industries are represented analytically. These are the so-called analytic-synthetic maps.
It must be borne in mind that there are different stages of synthesis. The geomorphological map is synthetic in relation to the maps of the angles of inclination and dissection of the relief, but at the same time it can be considered as analytical in relation to the map of the natural zoning of the territory. Here it stands among such maps as hydrological, soil, geobotanical, etc. What at one stage acts as a synthetic image, at the next, higher level, becomes an “element” of a more complex system - this is how the dialectic of analysis processes manifests itself in mapping synthesis. It should be added to this that the degree of synthesis always increases with a decrease in the scale of the map, with the transition from showing individual objects to depicting collective concepts. In other words, the level of synthesis depends to a certain extent on the degree of generalization of the cartographic image.

4.1.2. Complex maps

Complex maps combine the image of several elements of similar topics, a set of characteristics (indicators) of one phenomenon. For example, on the same map one can give isobars and vectors of the prevailing winds, bearing in mind that the winds are directly related to the atmospheric pressure field. On the map of agriculture, it is possible to simultaneously show the plowing of the territory and the yield of wheat, on the hydrological map - the intra-annual distribution of runoff in the river basin, the water content of rivers and potential energy resources. On fig. 4.3 shows a comprehensive map, on which the image within the annual distribution of river runoff and river flow is combined with the characteristics of potential hydropower resources.

Rice. 4.3. Complex map. River water content, runoff distribution and potential energy resources of the eastern part of the Kola Peninsula

Each characteristic is given in its own system of indicators, but showing two, three or more topics on one map allows the reader to consider them in a complex, visually compare them with each other, and establish patterns of placement of one indicator relative to another. This is the main advantage of complex maps.
However, there are also difficulties. The fact is that on one map it is difficult to combine the image of several phenomena so that they are well read. It is known, for example, that it is possible to combine two systems of isolines (one is given with layer-by-layer coloring, and the other with bright colored lines), but three systems of isolines are no longer readable. Similarly, you can give two cartograms on the map (one with a color scale, and the other with hatching), supplement the map with icons, movement lines, images of areas, etc., but with five or six layers, the complex map becomes overloaded and loses readability.
Well-known examples of integrated maps are topographic maps, which combine relief, hydrography, vegetation, soils and soils, settlements, socio-economic objects, road network, communication lines, administrative boundaries - i.e. the whole complex of objects characterizing the area.
Another, no less striking example is meteorological maps, where meteorological elements are shown against the background of isobars and atmospheric front lines: air and soil temperatures, air humidity, wind direction and speed, amount and type of precipitation, cloudiness, etc. - together they reflect weather conditions .
Thematic maps displaying several natural or socio-economic elements are of the complex map type. For example, synoptic maps that characterize the current weather in a certain area. Each element on these maps (temperature, pressure, winds, etc.) is characterized by its own system of indicators, but all of them are compared with each other, considered in a complex manner, usually with the identification of patterns in the placement of one indicator relative to another. The content of complex maps can be: some natural phenomena (pressure, winds); several socio-economic phenomena (industry, agriculture, transport); a group of phenomena that characterize the natural environment, population and economy (for example, maps of agro-industrial complexes that display the relationship between the location of industry and agriculture with natural resources and raw material bases). On complex maps, analytical and synthetic techniques are often used simultaneously. For example, on economic maps, analytical indicators are used to display industry, and synthetic indicators are used for agriculture. Topographic maps that display various elements of the terrain also belong to the type of complex maps.
Among thematic maps, maps stand out speakers and interconnections , as well as maps functional types . The latter include inventory, appraisal, indicator, forecast and advisory cards.
Dynamic maps convey movement, the development of a certain phenomenon or process in time or its movement in space (the movement of water masses, atmospheric vortices, the growth of cities).

Rice. 4.4. Climate map of Antarctica

Relationship maps reflect the nature and degree of spatial relationships of several phenomena (atmospheric pressure and winds, fertilizer application and crop yields). Basically, these are intersectoral maps that display the links between the phenomena and processes of nature, population and economy.
Inventory cards - usually these are analytical maps that display (register) the presence, location and state of objects and phenomena (natural and labor resources, economic objects: maps of the location of minerals, forests, farmland, the working population, industrial facilities, agriculture, transport, etc.) .
Score Cards - maps giving an assessment of certain phenomena (objects) for solving specific problems (for example, maps for assessing the natural conditions of a territory for agricultural production or for road construction, etc.). These are applied maps compiled on the basis of inventory maps, most often reflecting the interaction between man and nature.
Indication cards designed to predict and identify unknown phenomena based on the study of other well-known ones. The compilation of indicator maps is based on the idea of ​​a close relationship between indicators and indicated phenomena. Thus, vegetation indicator maps are used to detect tectonic faults, since special conditions for groundwater circulation arise above fault zones, and this affects the species composition of vegetation. Some types of plants serve as indicators of minerals (especially ore deposits, salt deposits), certain areas of animals indicate the spread of certain human diseases, therefore indicator geobotanical maps are used in the exploration of minerals, and indicator zoogeographic maps - in identifying potential areas of diseases. Thus, in essence, indicator maps are close to forecast maps.
Forecast maps display phenomena and processes that are currently unknown or inaccessible for direct observation, occurring both in time(for example, the dynamics of the population in the future, changes in the structure of industrial production, etc.), and in space(for example, the location of mineral deposits, the structure of the bowels of the Earth, etc.). According to the degree of reliability (probability) of the forecast, maps can be: preliminary forecast(schematic small-scale maps), probable forecast (more detailed than preliminary forecast maps, usually large-scale maps), highly probable forecast(the most detailed, usually large-scale maps) and prospective calculation cards(even more accurate maps based on accurate data).
Recommendation cards are usually compiled on the basis of assessment and forecast maps and contain specific proposals (recommendations) that need to be carried out in a given situation (on a certain territory) in order to achieve some goal (for the rational use of land, protection and improvement of the environment, etc.) .

4.2. CARDS FOR DIFFERENT PURPOSE

The purpose of the cards is as diverse as the spheres of human activity, so it is difficult to indicate all types of cards that differ in this respect. The matter is further complicated by the fact that a number of maps are oriented towards a multi-purpose purpose - they simultaneously serve for planning, scientific research, educational and cultural and educational purposes, obtaining reference information, and much more. And yet, several types of maps can be indicated, in which the features of their purpose are especially clearly manifested.
Scientific reference cards designed to carry out scientific research on them and obtain the most detailed (for a given scale), reliable and scientifically processed information. These are maps for professionals working in the field of geosciences and socio-economic sciences.
Cultural and educational cards focused on a wide readership, they give a simplified, if I may say so, "lightweight" cartographic interpretation for people who do not have special geographic and cartographic training. The purpose of these cards is to disseminate knowledge, promote ideas (for example, respect for natural and historical monuments), explain plans for economic development and development of territories, etc. Such cards usually have a bright, simple, intelligible design, complemented by diagrams, drawings, poster elements. Maps are close to this type. tourist and tourist -local history designed for tourists, travelers in their native land and just for vacationers. Their content focuses on places of interest to tourists (architectural and historical monuments, nature reserves, parks, museums, etc.). The maps are colorful and come with detailed signs and reference information. They can depict vast resort areas (for example, the Black Sea coast), national parks, cities, individual ski, hiking, water routes, etc. The same group includes cards for orienteering specially adapted for competitions in this sport.
Learning cards - a clearly distinguished type of maps used as visual aids or materials for independent work in schools and universities. They use projections, image methods that take into account the degree of preparation of students and the nature of the use of maps in the educational process. Accordingly, maps are created for primary, secondary and higher schools. Their workload should correspond to the volume of curricula of a particular educational level. It should be noted that maps for higher education, intended for audiences, are close to scientific reference maps in content and detail, without losing their demonstration properties.

4.3. SCHOOL CARTOGRAPHIC WORKS

4.3.1. Features of school cards

Compared to other cards, school cards have a number of features:
. their consistency with the relevant program and textbooks , exemption from unnecessary details. The younger the students, the less the load of cards for them. Excessive detail and load of school maps can make it difficult to survey the territory under study, to identify the objects needed for study. This, however, does not mean that only what is mentioned in the textbook is applied to the school map. In this case, the map will not plausibly reflect reality. Therefore, even on maps for elementary grades, some additional load is given from objects that are not mentioned in the textbook.
. visibility, provided not only by a small scale, but also by a large generalization, as well as the use of special graphic techniques and, above all, the enlargement of conventional signs (especially on wall maps), the creation of a multifaceted image, when what students should know in the first place comes to the fore ;
. increased visibility , which allows students to easily associate the data on the designation map with the corresponding objects in nature. Visualization on the maps is achieved by various methods - the use of background and dashed colors associated with natural ones (blue background of lakes, blue rivers, green forests, etc.), placement of artistic images of objects and the area as a whole depicted on the map on the fields of the map, the use of versatility cartographic image, etc.;
. application a fairly limited number of map projections ;
. scale on maps intended for studying the initial course of geography in elementary grades, named and linear are usually given. For senior classes, a numerical scale is also placed on the maps;
. frame orientation school maps relative to the lines of the cartographic grid is chosen such that the average meridian runs in the middle of the map. At the same time, the north-south direction is maintained in the middle of the map in the position familiar to students (north is at the top, south is at the bottom).

4.3.2. School geographic atlases

School geographic atlases are the main aids for comprehensive independent work of students in the classroom and at home. The main pedagogical goal in working with school atlases is not to transfer knowledge to students, but to teach them to extract information on their own. As cartographic works, they have the same properties as all atlases. However, they have properties that follow from the specifics of their purpose.
At present, there is a growing number of school atlases published by both government agencies and private firms. Therefore, the choice of this or that atlas as the main, mandatory manual should be based on a thorough analysis of all existing works of this kind. The analysis of school atlases is carried out by the teacher in the same way as any atlas. A geography teacher who knows the features of school atlases well and knows how to analyze them will be able to organize work with them more competently and teach students to use them more fully as a source of geographical knowledge.
Separate school atlases, in addition to maps, include special methodological introductory sections that consider the features of the atlas maps and instructions for working with them, reference information about the most important objects on the earth's surface (rivers, lakes, islands, the highest mountain peaks, etc.). In addition, in atlases for senior classes, reference information is also placed on the pages of the atlas themselves. These are various kinds of charts, tables, inset maps. The best editions of school atlases contain satellite images of parts of the earth's surface and a general view of the Earth from space.
Among the group of atlases of individual countries, special attention deserves National Atlas of Ukraine - the official government publication. The Atlas was created as a modern information system and has a number of important functions. Wide representative and information opportunities allow using it in many areas of society:
. in legislative and administrative activities at the national and regional levels;
. to substantiate various state programs for the balanced economic, social, environmental and spiritual development of the regions and the state as a whole;
. in nature management and monitoring of natural and social phenomena and processes;
. in the system of school and higher education;
. in the formation of foreign policy and the development of international relations.
It is a source of up-to-date information about Ukraine for the interested domestic and foreign reader and the large Ukrainian diaspora.
In terms of the level of theoretical and methodological support and cartographic implementation of spatial data, the Atlas is comparable to the national atlases of other countries of the world.

Rice. 4.5. National Atlas of Ukraine

In 2010, a new modern cartographic work was published - the Teacher's Atlas, which was prepared by the State Research and Production Enterprise "Cartography".

Rice. 4.6. Atlas of the teacher published by NPP "Kartography"

According to its content and content, this atlas can be called an atlas-encyclopedia. And indeed it is. The four main sections of the atlas contain a wealth of geographic information about the planet Earth.
The atlas is made according to the latest technologies, illustrated with a large number of photographs and diagrams. It was created on the basis of modern cartographic and literary sources and statistical materials.
Atlas maps are complemented by textual and geographical information.

4.3.3. Special school maps and other cartographic works

These include the following:
a) contour maps - monochrome images intended for applying various data (inscriptions, signs, objects, phenomena, processes, etc.) on them. They are produced in the form of blocks with an agreed basis, scale, layout. Existing maps provide for a gradual complication of work with contour maps from junior to senior grades. Another function of contour maps is the basis for compiling thematic maps or maps in identifying the interrelations of the studied phenomena and processes;
b) induction cards - wall contour maps made on linoleum or leatherette with indelible contours. Used when working with students on desktop contour maps, explaining new material;
in) silent cards - ordinary wall maps, but without inscriptions; designed to test and consolidate the knowledge of students at the blackboard;
G) half-dumb cards - characterize the objects with the first two or three letters, and the next letters of the names of these objects must be identified and added to the student;
G) stencil cards - made on a transparent film for projecting from the epidiascope to the screen; make it possible to apply a number of films; used when learning new material;
e) sketch maps - cartographic drawings made “by eye”, without exact observance of the scale on the board; are used when studying new material, when it is necessary to focus students' attention on a certain phenomenon or process;
e) electrified and magnetic cards - ordinary wall maps, which are specially equipped; on electrified cards, in certain places, built-in electrical contacts, where small electric bulbs are connected; magnetic cards are made on special metal sheets; conventional signs on them are made of foam plastic with an inserted magnet;
and) text cards - cards of textbooks and manuals, one of the types of desktop cards and an integral part of the textbook as an integral work; together with the text provide the study of the necessary program material. According to the text, these cards can play the main role (the text explains them), an auxiliary role (they explain, “comment” on the text), are on an equal footing;
With) globes they begin to use it in lessons even in elementary grades to explain the shape of the Earth, in subsequent ones - to explain the shape and size of the Earth, the cartographic grid, the essence of parallels and meridians, in determining geographical coordinates (geographical latitude and longitude), the illumination of the Earth by the Sun, the movement of the Earth around the Sun and around its axis, etc. School globes are made on a scale of 1:83,000,000, 1:50,000,000, 1:30,000,000; the last - demonstration, the first two - are intended for independent work of students; content is divided into physical, political, embossed. common induction globes- on a black background, a degree grid is applied with light paint. There are globes made of transparent plastic with illumination from the inside.
The school curriculum in geography provides for the use of profiles, sections, block diagrams, relief maps, etc.

4.3.4. Pedagogical goal in working with a map in geography lessons

The map is the most used cartographic work in the school geography curriculum. It is the most versatile product. On the map, you can solve various creative tasks. The use of maps in school geography has three main goals (tasks) that are achieved in the process of studying the map and working with it:
a) to understand the map - this means to master the basic properties of the map, the features of various types of maps, their symbols, methods of application;
b) to read a map means to be able to find out the geographical reality with its cartographic image, that is, to discover the interconnections between natural phenomena and human activity by conventional symbols. The nature of reading can be different and depends on the purpose and capabilities of the map: from the usual reference (what? where? how much?) to a complete understanding of the relationship and interdependence of objects and phenomena (why? for what reasons? how?);
c) know the map - reproduction of cartographic information in memory, represent from memory the relative position, relative size, shape and proper names of objects that are studied in the school geography course.
Cartographic information contributes to the ordering of geographical knowledge, while this knowledge has a chorological and spatial reference.
The above goals are unequal in their meaning, but are interconnected. In school geography, the emphasis should be on map reading, which should be based on understanding and knowledge of the map.
Working with a map or other cartographic works is interesting for schoolchildren, because it includes the visual function of memory (the visual nerve channel is four times more powerful than the auditory one). In addition, children have always liked traveling and excursions. This should be used to “transmit” knowledge to students. It is not possible to teach students cartographic verbal methods, so the appropriate cartographic works should be selected for students, and not maps in general.

Questions and tasks for self-control

1. What cards are called analytical?
2. By what indicators can an analytical map be recognized?
3. What are the benefits of analytical mapping?
4. How is the relativity of the concept of "Analytical map" expressed?
5. By what indicators can a complex map be recognized?
6. What are the advantages and disadvantages of integrated mapping?
7. By what indicators can a synthetic card be recognized?
8. What are the advantages and disadvantages of synthetic mapping?
9. What methods of mathematical modeling are used in the preparation of synthetic maps? What is the essence of these methods?
10. How does the dialectic of analysis-synthesis processes appear in mapping?
11. How does the degree of synthesis correlate with the scale of the map?
12. What geographical phenomena do dynamic maps show? Give examples of these cards.
13. What geographical phenomena do maps of relationships convey? Give examples of these cards.
14. What data do inventory cards contain?
15. What data do scorecards contain?
16. What data do the indicator cards contain?
17. What data do forecast maps contain?
18. How are forecast maps classified?
19. What data do recommendation cards contain?
20. What are the purposes of scientific reference maps?
21. What are the purposes of cultural and educational maps?
22. What are the purposes of tourist cards?
23. What is the purpose of educational cards?
29. Give examples of modern complex atlases.

Good day! In this post, we will talk about the types of geographical maps. I previously wrote a short article about, but now we will talk about this in more detail.

Since ancient times, in order to display and transmit to other people information about the surface of the Earth, people have created maps.

Today cards are a part of our daily life. We encounter them in weather forecasts, in guidebooks, when planning a trip and on the road.

Types of geographical maps.

We know best general geographical maps. Such maps show the main elements of the terrain (vegetation, relief, settlements). Thematic maps focus on individual elements, for example, or temperature.

The maps are constantly updated to reflect constant changes, such as the appearance of new borders, the demolition of old buildings, road construction ... In the 1990s. after the collapse of the USSR, cartographers had to revise the political maps of Eastern Europe and the former USSR.

Geographic atlases.

Geographic atlas is a systematic collection of geographical maps. The main feature of the modern atlas is the internal unity of all the maps that are included in it.

This is achieved by using comparable projections, symbols, scales, general design principles, image methods, etc. It is believed that the ancient Greek scientist th (II century AD) compiled the first geographical atlas.

Atlases include general geographical maps of the world and individual regions, as well as separate thematic(climatic maps, population maps, economic maps, etc.)

It displays regional and national boundaries, as well as the names of administrative and political divisions, and other major settlements. Each state and each administrative-territorial unit are painted in different colors.

Irregularities on the surface of the Earth on modern physical (relief) maps, most often shown using a hypsometric color scale (shades of blue show the seabed, brown - mountains, green - lowlands).

Shadow shading and hillshade give additional plasticity and clarity to the image of the relief. In some cases, a photo-relief is superimposed on a hypsometric image to convey shadow plasticity.

The position of individual peaks relative to sea level is shown by elevation marks.

Topographic maps.

Topographic maps also belong to the general geographic, since they depict not only elements of hydrography and relief, but also artificial structures, including communications and settlements, superimposed on the natural landscape.

For example, on fairly detailed topographic maps at a scale of 1:50,000 (in 1 cm 500 m), in addition to socio-economic and natural objects of the area with all their inherent quantitative and qualitative features and placement characteristics, using contour lines (usually brown lines that connect points with the same height) shows the relief.

Of course, there are maps on a larger scale, including city plans, on which individual buildings, private houses, gardens are plotted ...

In modern society general geographical maps(in particular, topographic) are increasingly used. For example, such maps are used in orienteering sports.

This sport originated in Scandinavia, and it requires the ability to recognize map elements on the ground, determine the direction (azimuth) of movement, etc. In sailing, navigational maps of the coastal zone are used.

Thematic cards.

Thematic maps contain information about the structure, about the location, about, about the weather, etc. Such cards are divided into several types.

On the isoline maps different types of lines are widely used, which connect points with the same value of a certain element.

On synoptic and climatic maps, areas with the same pressure are connected by isobars, with the same temperatures - by isotherms, with the same precipitation - by isohyets.

On many thematic maps conditional coloring and designation are used to express quantitative characteristics.

For example, on population maps, the population of the urban population is shown by small circles of different diameters and the degree of their concentration.

On cartograms, the use of different colors or different saturations of the same color for coloring individual sections directly corresponds to the quantitative indicator of a certain characteristic (crime rate, birth rate, population density).

The attention of users of such maps is focused on statistics - the main element of the cartogram.

Topological maps are very visual. On such maps, migration or trade flows are shown by arrows or lines, the width of which reflects the intensity of the process.

Very often, topological maps are drawn without observing the image scale, this is in order to facilitate the perception of the main topic.

For example, for a passenger in the schemes of transport routes, the main thing is to quickly find the desired station and determine the route.

Also, many maps display the results of scientific research. For example, geological maps show the structure of a certain section of the earth's crust, such maps are used by geographers, geologists, and they are also used when laying railways and roads, and when building buildings.

On the geochemical maps concentrations of chemical elements in rocks are shown, on soil maps- types . On epidemiological maps, the areas of certain diseases are highlighted, which helps scientists determine the causes of these diseases.

How to use the card.

The possibilities of maps are largely limited by their scale - the degree to which the lines and distances on the map are reduced in comparison with their actual sizes on the ground.

The possibilities of the map are limited in many respects by its scale - the ratio of the size of the object shown on the map to its real size.

To show a river or a road to scale on a map would require drawing very thin lines, so thin that they could only be seen under a microscope.

On a map at a scale of 1:10,000, a two-millimeter line would correspond to 20 meters, and on a map at a scale of 1:250,000, it would correspond to 500 meters.

That is why cartographers very often simplify some elements and convey only their characteristic outlines (for example, without trying to accurately depict every bend and width of a river).

Precision and detail.

The limited scope of many details is another disadvantage of many maps. So, for example, topographic maps 1:50,000 show wooded areas and buildings, but skip the sewer network and underground passages.

However, many maps contain a large amount of a wide variety of information. Geological maps, with the help of symbols and different colors, give a physical description of relief-forming rocks and show their structure.

Geologists, comparing the outlines of landforms with the boundaries of different geological layers, have the opportunity to determine the nature of the occurrence and the place of their emergence to the surface.

Map reading.

It is very important to be able to read a map, including understanding what the symbols on the map mean on the ground.

For example, the lack of surface runoff in a rainy area may suggest to geographers that the map depicts a limestone landscape, which means that surface water goes into underground voids.

The emergence of sources that are located in one row to the surface indicates the presence of a boundary between the impermeable and aquiferous rock, which delays the flow of groundwater.

Innovations in cartography.

The method of space mapping has been widely used recently. The essence of this method is the compilation of thematic and topographic maps directly from space survey data.

This method of mapping is highly economical. It is especially effective in updating and compiling maps of territories that are poorly studied, replenishing their content, showing those phenomena that are visible only from high altitudes (global faults, for example), compiling maps for a specific date (synoptic maps), mapping the dynamics of the phenomenon.

The use of geographic information systems (GIS) is the latest achievement in cartography. GIS is a computer technology for analyzing and mapping real world objects, as well as events taking place on our planet.

This technology combines traditional database operations such as statistical analysis and querying with the full visualization benefits of geographic analysis provided by a map.

All these capabilities distinguish GIS from other information systems, and also provide unique opportunities for its application in a wide range of tasks related to the forecast and analysis of phenomena and events of the world, with the identification and understanding of the main causes and factors, as well as their possible consequences, with the planning of strategic decisions and the current consequences of the actions taken.

GIS is used in almost all spheres of human activity - from the analysis of such global problems as deforestation, overpopulation, natural disasters, pollution of the territory, to solving particular problems, such as choosing the optimal location for a new office, finding the best route between points, laying a pipeline along locality, search for a house by address, a variety of municipal tasks.

Information Services.

In cartography, not so long ago they began to use the world coordinate system, which uses satellite signals."GPS" - the global navigation system, also known as "Navstar" (Navigation System with Time and Ranging - Navigation system for determining time and range), is designed to transmit navigation signals that can be simultaneously received in all regions of the world.

The first regular orbital constellation of the system was deployed from June 1989 to March 1994: 24 spacecraft were put into orbit. In 1995, the final commissioning of GPS took place.

Maintenance and operation is carried out by the Department of Defense. All over the world, the system is used to solve both military and civilian navigation tasks.

The GPS receiver allows you to determine the speed of the object, the exact time and its (latitude and longitude).

The procedure for determining coordinates on the ground became accessible and simple thanks to the advent of inexpensive GPS receivers, and this also gave impetus to the development of electronic cartography systems.

Nowadays, this system is used in aero and sea navigation, in geodesy. The geographic information service allows you to plot a route based on computer processing of geographic data in digital form.

Thus, we examined the types of geographical maps that are constantly being improved and become more detailed and accurate, and this is very good for studying our Earth and helping people navigate. 😉

Question:
I was given a debit bank card, but the bank employee did not explain anything about what information is reflected on the bank card, what the appearance of the card carries. May I need information on a bank card, and in what cases?

Answer: First, about what a bank card looks like, or rather, what a card can look like. The bank card has a format defined by the ISO 7810 ID-1 standard: 85.6mm x 53.98mm x 0.76mm and is mainly made of plastic. The front and back sides of the card carry various functional information. The general background of the front side of the bank card is approved by the bank according to the plots developed by the designers, and the reverse side always has a plain background. That is, the drawing and color of the card depends on the preferences of the issuing bank, and also takes into account the requirements of the payment system that services this card.

The background should contribute to the aesthetic perception of the card and the recognition of the bank that issued the card. For certain types of cards, banks offer cardholders to decide on the design themselves, that is, they provide the client with the right to choose an individual design.

Using stolen name cards, it is more difficult to purchase goods at retail outlets, especially expensive ones, since with a significant purchase amount or the slightest doubt, sellers have the right to ask for a passport.

• World - 2;
• VISA - 4;
• American Express - 3
• MasterCard - 5
• Maestro - 3, 5 or 6
• China UnionPay - 6
• JCB International - 3
• UEC - 7.

Issuing bank logo is located at the top of the card in the right or left corners of the card and identifies the card as the property of a particular bank that issued this card. The logo always contains the abbreviated company name of the bank. For example:

Reverse side of the card

1. Name of the bank- at the bottom of the card, the name of the bank to which the card belongs is necessarily repeated.


2. White paper strip located next to the magnetic stripe. It is available only on personalized cards - and is intended for applying a sample signature of the cardholder. This is also protection - if you try to forge a signature sample at the time of making payments using a stolen card, problems may arise.

   The paper strip, in addition to the cardholder's signature sample, is filled with information, taking into account the elements of the payment system type and the card authentication code.

   So, for example, the bar can be filled with:

   
   
   • diagonal lines with the word VISA in blue/blue and gold and a 19-digit number printed in a special left-slanted font that includes 16 digits of the card number and 3 digits of the security code
   
   
   • diagonal lines with the word MasterCard or MC in red, blue/cyan and yellow and a 7-digit number in the center of the panel printed in a special left-slanted font that includes the last four digits of the card number and 3 digits of the security code
   
   


3. Card authentication code(CVV2 and CVC2) - for payment systems, MasterCard or Visa, it consists of three digits, and is located on a white paper strip, next to the holder's signature after the last four digits of the bank card number indicated there. The code is used as an additional means of identifying the cardholder when making payments, especially on the Internet. It is not found on all categories of maps of these systems.

   Card authentication code by technology MirAccept (MirAccept) payment system "MIR" - consists of three digits and is located on the back of the card. At Sberbank of Russia, for example, the code is located before the words "Thank you from Sberbank."



4. Magnetic stripe on the card- this is a magnetic strip soldered into plastic, which is a carrier of information. Data is written to the card once and is not overwritten in the future. The entry (or coding) is made on the instructions of the bank and it includes data: about the cardholder, his account number, bank and other additional data necessary for the bank.

   The magnetic strip can be black, dark brown or any other color.