Designation on the map river bridge road. Symbols on the map. Statement of new information

Sign 1.16 shows two bumps in the road. Road sign 1.16 "Rough road" warns the driver that he is approaching a section of road with poor coverage, with pits, potholes and other irregularities. The driver, having seen the sign "Rough road", should slow down and be ready for maneuvers to avoid potholes or to smoothly drive through all the bumps in the road surface.
All potholes on the road cannot be marked with this road sign, so if the sign is installed, it means that there is really an emergency section of the road ahead or it is being repaired.
It should be understood that if a wheel gets into a pit at high speed, it can lead to serious damage to both the wheels and the suspension of the car. Many small potholes at high speed can cause loss of vehicle control or an unexpected change in trajectory.

Sign 1.16 is set

In the locality: at a distance of 50-100 meters before the start of an uneven road.

Outside the village: at a distance of 150-300 meters before the start of an uneven road.

Outside the settlement, this sign is installed together with the signs:

1.25 - Road works.

The sign indicates that road works are being carried out. As a result road works the road may be rough. When sign 1.25 is installed, sign 1.16 must be on a yellow background.

8.2.1 - Coverage.

Indicates the length of the dangerous stretch of road, in this case uneven pavement.

Conventional signs There are contour, linear and off-scale.

• contour(areal) signs shown, for example, lakes;
• Linear signs rivers, roads, canals.
• Off-scale signs on the plans, for example, wells, springs are noted, and on geographical maps - settlements, volcanoes, waterfalls.

Rice. 1. Examples of off-scale, linear and area symbols

Rice. Basic symbols

Rice. Conventional signs of the area

Contours

There is a separate category of symbols - isolines, i.e. lines connecting points with the same values ​​of the depicted phenomena (Fig. 2). Lines of equal atmospheric pressure are called isobars, lines of equal air temperature - isotherms, lines of equal height earth's surface — isohypses or horizontal lines.

Rice. 2. Examples of isolines

Mapping methods

To depict geographical phenomena on maps, various methods are used. ways. Way of habitats show areas of distribution of natural or social phenomena, such as animals, plants, some minerals. traffic signs used to show sea currents, winds, traffic flows. high quality background show, for example, states on a political map, and quantitative background- division of the territory according to some quantitative indicator (Fig. 3).

Rice. 3. Cartographic methods: a - method of areas; b - signs of movement; c - method of qualitative background; d - quantitative background - dotted signs

To show the average value of the phenomenon in any territory, it is most expedient to use the principle of equal intervals. One way to get an interval is to divide the difference between the largest and smallest exponent by five. For example, if the largest indicator is 100, the smallest is 25, the difference between them is 75, its 1/5 -15, then the intervals will be: 25-40, 40-55, 55-70, 70-85 and 85-100 . When showing these intervals on the map, a lighter background or sparse shading depicts a lower intensity of the phenomenon, darker tones and dense shading - a greater one. This type of mapping is called cartogram(Fig. 4).

Rice. 4. Examples of cartograms and cartograms

To the way chart diagrams resorted to show the total magnitude of the phenomenon in any area, for example, electricity production, the number of schoolchildren, fresh water reserves, the degree of plowing of the land, etc. map called a simplified map that does not have a degree network.

Relief depiction on plans and maps

On maps and plans, relief is shown using contour lines and elevations.

Contours, as you already know, are lines on a plan or map connecting points on the earth's surface that have the same height above ocean level (absolute height) or above the level taken as a reference point ( relative height).

Rice. 5. Image of relief by contour lines

In order to depict a hill on a plan, you need to define it relative height, which shows how far vertically one point on the earth's surface is higher than another (Fig. 7).

Rice. 6. Image of a hill on a plane

Rice. 7. Determination of relative height

Relative height can be determined using a level. Level(from fr. niveau - level, level) - a device for determining the difference in height between several points. The device, usually mounted on a tripod (tripod), is equipped with a telescope adapted for rotation in a horizontal plane and a sensitive level.

Spend hill leveling- this means measuring its western, southern, eastern and northern slopes from the bottom to the top with the help of a level and driving in pegs in those places where the level was installed (Fig. 8). Thus, four pegs will be driven in at the bottom of the hill, four - at a height of 1 m from the ground, if the height of the level is 1 m, etc. The last peg is driven in at the top of the hill. After that, the position of all the pegs is applied to the terrain plan and first all points with a relative height of 1 m are connected with a smooth line, then - 2 m, etc.

Rice. 8. Hill flattening

Please note: if the slope is steep, the horizontals on the plan will be located close to each other, if it is gentle, they will be far apart.

Small dashes drawn perpendicular to the horizontal lines are berghashes. They show in which direction the slope goes down.

Horizontals on the plans depict not only hills, but also depressions. In this case, the berghashes are turned inward (Fig. 9).

Rice. 9. Image of contour lines of various forms of relief

Steep slopes of cliffs or ravines on the maps are indicated by small teeth.

The height of a point above mean ocean level is called absolute altitude. In Russia, all absolute heights are calculated from the level of the Baltic Sea. Thus, the territory of St. Petersburg is on average 3 m above the water level in the Baltic Sea, the territory of Moscow is 120 m, and the city of Astrakhan is 26 m below this level. Elevation marks on geographical maps indicate the absolute height of points.

On a physical map, the relief is depicted with the help of layered coloring, i.e., with colors of different intensities. For example, areas with a height of 0 to 200 m are painted over in green. At the bottom of the map there is a table that shows which color corresponds to which height. This table is called height scale.

MUNICIPAL BUDGET INSTITUTION OF ADDITIONAL EDUCATION

"CENTER FOR CHILDREN AND YOUTH TOURISM

AND EXCURSIONS, BRYANSK

SUMMARY OF THE LESSON ON THE TOPIC:

DEVELOPED: d/o teacher

Stasishina N.V.

Bryansk - 2014

Plan - abstract

topic classes

"Conventional signs of topographic maps".

Purpose of the lesson: Give an idea of ​​the conventional signs of topographic maps.

Lesson objectives:

To acquaint those involved with the concept of conventional signs and its varieties;

To involve members of the circle in systematic sports;

Develop the skills of teamwork and joint search for solutions;

Continue to promote the development of logical thinking, memory and

student attention;

Equipment: 1. posters with symbols.

2. cards with test tasks.

Class type: Learning new material.

Literature: 1. Aleshin V.M. "Tourist topography" - Profizdat, 1987

2. Aleshin V.M., Serebrenikov A.V., "Tourist topography" - Profizdat, 1985

3. Vlasov A, Ngorny A. - "Tourism" (educational manual), M., Higher

school, 1977

4. Voronov A. - "Tourist's Guide to Topography" - Krasnodar., Kn.izd-vo, 1973

6. Kuprin A., "Topography for everyone" - M., Nedra, 1976

Lesson plan

Preparatory part. (3)

Explanation of the new topic: (45)

Presentation of new information.

3. Consolidation of the studied material. (eight)

4. Summing up the lesson. (2)

5. Organizational moment. (2)

Course progress.

1. Preparatory part:

Students sit at their desks, prepare writing materials

The teacher announces the topic, goals and objectives of the lesson, explains the requirements and plan of the lesson, checks those present.

Note

for readiness for

occupation, form

clothes of those involved.

2. Explanation of the new topic:

Statement of new information:

Today in class we will look at new theme:

"Conventional signs of topographic maps".

The map has many names printed in plain words, numbers, lines, and many icons of different colors, sizes, and shapes. it topographic symbols, which indicate local objects on the map.

What are conventional signs?

Conventional signs are symbols with which the actual area is depicted on the map.

Topographers came up with special conventional signs so that they would, if possible, be similar to the local objects themselves, and correspond in size to them on a map scale. So, for example, a forest on topographic maps is depicted in green (after all, it is actually green); houses and other buildings are depicted as rectangles, because when viewed from above, they are almost always in the form of rectangles; rivers, streams, lakes are depicted in blue, since the water, reflecting the sky, also seems blue to us. But it is not always possible to depict every local object on the map accurately in shape, color and size. Take, for example, a highway with a width of 20 m. On a map of 100,000 (1 mm 100 m), such a road would have to be drawn with a line one-fifth of a millimeter thick, and on a map at a scale of 1: 200,000 this line would have to be drawn more thinner - 0.1 mm. Small in size, but important local objects are depicted on topographic maps with special off-scale signs, that is, such signs that do not correspond to the actual sizes of local objects, reduced according to the scale of a particular map. For example, a small spring on the river bank is depicted on the map as a blue circle with a diameter of a whole millimeter; in addition, highways and other major roads are colored on maps so that, as they say, they are striking to everyone who picks up a topographic map. For example, an asphalt highway is shown as a bright red line on a map.

Symbols used in compiling sports maps for competitions in orienteering, are somewhat different from the topographic ones. Their main purpose is to give the athlete the information about the terrain that he needs when choosing the path of movement. These are signs showing the passability of forests, swamps, paths, etc. So, for the convenience of reading on the run, on a sports map, unlike a topographic map, it is not the forest that is painted over, but open space - fields, meadows, glades in the forest. All topographic symbols can be divided into four types:

1) linear- these are roads, communication lines, power lines, streams, rivers, etc. That is, these are signs of such local objects, which themselves have the form of long lines;

Write the topic on the board.

Students write down a new topic in their notebook.

2) curly- these are signs of towers, bridges, churches, ferries, power plants, individual buildings, etc.;

3) areal - these are signs of forests, swamps, settlements, arable lands, meadows - that is, local objects that occupy significant areas of the earth's surface. The signs are made up of two

elements: a contour and a sign that fills the contour;

4) explanatory- these are signs of the characteristics of the forest, the names of settlements, railway stations, rivers, lakes, mountains, etc.,

these are the width of the highway, the length, width and carrying capacity of bridges, the depth of fords on rivers, and the like.

Almost all linear and figured signs are off-scale, and area signs, as a rule, exactly correspond to the true sizes of local objects. Signs are easier to learn and remember, getting acquainted with them in groups that are formed according to the type of local objects:

group No. 1 - roads and road structures;

group No. 2 - settlements, buildings;

group number 3 - hydro network (that is, water on the ground);

group No. 4 - vegetation;

group No. 5 - relief;

group No. 6 - explanatory and special tourist signs.

Group No. 1. Roads and road structures

This group includes eleven major topographical signs.

All roads can be divided into three main types: railways for train traffic, highways and dirt roads.

Highway are called roads that have a solid artificialcoating - stone (cobblestone, paving stones), asphalt or concrete. The highway sign is off-scale. Every shos signseine road on the map is given an additional sign- letter- digital characteristic, consisting of three elements: numbers, one more number in brackets and a letter. The first digit indicates the width of the highway pavement in meters (i.e. asphalted, concretedof the roadbed or paved with stone), and in parenthesesa figure is given indicating the width of the entire highway in meters, i.e. along with the edges. The letter indicates the material with which the highway is covered: if it is asphalt, then the letter “A” is put, if concrete - the letter “B”, and if the highway is covered with buskier or paving stones (i.e. stone), then the letter "K".

The next type of roads - ground, earth roads without artificial surfacing. All dirt roads are divided into three types: simple dirt roads (they are also called field or forest roads), country roads, and so on.

called improved dirt roads (abbreviated as UGD). An improved dirt road is also an earthen road, but with a slightly convex shape for better water flow, ditches along the shoulders and gravel or crushed stone filling, compacted by a roller.

No one specially paves the paths, they arise themselves withfight from the constant walking of people. In densely populated areasrarely can a whole network go in the same direction at oncepaths that then close, then again diverge. Such a lotit is impossible to depict the nature of the paths on the map, so the grouptrails are shown as one conditional trail in the corresponding directionleniya. Only long enough in length and permanently existing (sometimes called "secular") paths are appliedon large scale maps. The symbol of the trail is almost like thisthe same as a simple dirt road - thin black intermittentdashed line, but every strokehas a shorter length.

Railways earlier from flaunted with two thin blackparallel lines, clearance between which was filled inalternating black and white shanecks. now signis a continuousthick black line. two koshort strokes across the same signrailroad means that ithas two tracks. If there is only one track then one stroke is put. If the cross stroke has anothershort stroke parallel to the railway sign, then this is known chit that the road is electrified.

At the sign of the railway station, a black rectangle inside a white rectangle is placed on the side of the railway where the station building (station building) is located.

Bridges. On simple dirt roads, as a rule, they build wooden bridges; on highways, improved dirt roads and on important country roads, bridges are most often made of concrete (stone). On the railways large bridges over large rivers are always metal, and over small rivers - concrete. Topographic signs of bridges are figured and off-scale signs.
Where the bridge sign is placed on the map, the road and river signs are torn apart (Fig. 37). An alphanumeric description of the bridge serves as an explanatory sign for bridges. For example: DZ =
(24 - 5)/10. Here the letter "D" denotes the material from which the bridge is built - wood (if the bridge is concrete, the letter

"TO"). The coefficient 3 is the height of the bridge above the surface of the water in the river. In the numerator of the fraction, the first digit, 24, is the length of the bridge in meters, the second digit, 5, is its width in meters. In the denominator, the number 10 shows the load capacity of the bridge in tons, that is, what is the maximum weight of the machine the bridge is calculated with its design.

Bridges are often made on hiking trails, but very small ones - only for pedestrians. Such bridges (the inhabitants often call them either treasures or lavas) are sometimes just two logs laid over the river from bank to bank. The topographic sign of the footbridge is very simple.

Very often the roads are crossed by small dry

ravines, hollows, through which streams flow only in spring, when the snow melts. During the construction of the road, an embankment is made across the ravine, under which a concrete pipe is laid for

Students write in their notebooks.

Conventional signs sketch themselves in a notebook

highway

Simple dirt road

Country road

Improved dirt road

Railway

Bridge

Pedestrian bridge

water runoff. Such pipes have their own topographical sign.

Group #2. Settlements, individual buildings

There are fifteen most important topographical signs in this group. The settlements themselves - villages, auls, farms, towns, cities - are complex formations consisting of various buildings and structures. Therefore, there is no simple topographic sign of a settlement - it is made up of topographic signs of various local objects that make up what is called a settlement.

Separate residential and non-residential buildings are represented by an off-scale black rectangle. If the building is very large in area, and the map is large-scale, then the building is depicted as a black figure, similar in shape and size (on the scale of the map) to the building itself. That is, this is a large-scale sign. Often, at some distance from a village or settlement, there is a residential building with its own garden, orchard, and outbuildings.

For such a separate yard, or farm, there is a special topographical sign.

In settlements, quarters are distinguished with a predominance of wooden (not fire-resistant) and stone (fire-resistant) buildings. topographic sign quarters of the village limited to thin black lines. Inside it is given a background of either yellow (if the block is dominated by wooden buildings) or orange (if the block is dominated by stone fire-resistant buildings). On the background there are black rectangles - off-scale signs of individual houses, buildings or large-scale signs of individual large buildings. Next to the signs of some buildings, their characteristics are given. For example: "SHK." - school, "SICK." - hospital, "EL-ST." - power plant, "SAN" - a sanatorium.

The topographical sign of the fence (fencing) is the thinnest black line on the map. Such a sign is often found on maps in the form of a broken closed line, which indicates some kind of fenced area.

If an industrial enterprise is depicted on a small-scale map, then it is necessary to use an off-scale sign of a plant (factory) with a pipe (meaning a high pipe that can serve as a guide visible at a sufficiently large distance) or without a pipe. An abbreviated explanatory sign is given next to the sign, characterizing the type of products manufactured by the enterprise. For example: "kirp" - a brick factory, "muk." - flour mill, "boom." - paper mill, "sakh." - sugar refinery, etc.

If an industrial enterprise occupies a large area, then ordinary large-scale signs are used that show all or almost all the buildings and structures on its territory: a fence, a plant management building, workshops, warehouses, etc., while half-blackened

diagonally off-scale sign of the plant.

pipe under the road

Separate buildings

Farm

urban development

Plants and factories

Within the city there may bechurch, monument or a monument cemetery . A cemetery can be small or large, with or without trees. PoeTherefore, for the image of the cemetery, both large-scale andand off-scale sign. In hiking and travel you can meeteven in the deep forest a separate yard where he lives

forester and his family. Forester's house has its own topographical sign - the usual non-scale sign of a separate building with the inscription "forest."

Important landmarks can serve as well-visible from afar various ba buildingsrack type- water towers, fire towers, silos. They are marked with one off-scale sign, next to which an explanation is often given what kind of tower it is.

Good landmarks are also high wooden towers, most often standing on the tops of hills, with an observation platform at the very top, where the stairs lead. These are the so-called triangulation points(they are called trigopunks for short). Next to the trigopoint sign on the map there is always some number that indicates the height of the base of the tower above the level of the Baltic Sea in meters and centimeters.

A sign resembling bricks stacked on top of each other - peat extraction, that is, the place where peat is mined.

And the last of this group are very important local items, topographical signs which you need to know are communication lines and power lines (TL).

Communication lines are indicated on all cards, regardless of the nature of the connection, by a thin black line with black dots on it. The sign of the communication line is drawn on the map in the same way as the communication line itself goes on the ground.

Power lines(power lines) are on wooden poles or on metal and concrete supports. The power line sign consists of a thin black line, on which dots or dashes with arrows are located at intervals of one centimeter.

If the power line is laid on wooden poles, then dots are placed, if on metal or concrete supports - short thickened dashes.

Group #3. Hydrography

There are 8 basic signs in this group that you need to know.

In hiking trips, tourists constantly “communicate” with the surface waters of the earth - they set up camp on the banks of rivers and lakes, lay routes along rivers, ford them, overcome swamps, ditches, use springs to cook food on a fire.

One of the main topographical signs of this group is river sign- can be both large-scale and non-scale (along the width of the river). The sign of a wide, large river consists of two elements - the outline of the coastlines of the river (as well as the coastline of the islands, if any), which is drawn with a thin blue line, and the filling sign - a blue background depicting the surface of the river, that is, the space occupied by water.

Church

monument

forester's house

tower

trigopoint

peat mining

Communication line

power lines

big river

Off-scale sign small river or stream is a simple thin blue line, which, however, gradually thickens from the source to the mouth.

There are streams that “live” only in spring and early summer, and then the water disappears in them. it transfersflowing streams and rivers. The sign of such streams and rivers is a thin blue, but not solid, but broken line

Information about where the river flows and what is the speed of the flow will also be given by a topographic map with an explanatory sign of hydrography - a black arrow showing the direction of the river flow, and numbers placed in the middle of the arrow and showing the speed of the flow in meters per second.

Sea, lake, pond are depicted in the same way: the contours of the shores are shown with a thin blue line, and the water mirror is shown with a blue background.

In densely populated areas, wells located in settlements are shown only on very large-scale maps (on site plans). Sign well- a blue circle with a blue dot in the center.

Water sources(springs, springs) are also shown on topographic maps only when they do not dry out and are significant in terms of the amount of water. The sign of the source (spring) is a blue circle. If a constant stream flows from a spring, then it is shown with the corresponding sign. If the water soon sinks into the ground again, the sign of the stream is not shown.

swamps There are two types: passable and difficult (or even completely impassable), through which it is dangerous to move and it is better to bypass. Accordingly, there are two signs of swamps: short blue horizontal strokes grouped in the form of irregular rhombuses - this is a passable swamp, but solid horizontal blue strokes - an impassable swamp. The borders of the marshes are outlined with a black dotted line.

And the last sign of this group is the ditches, the signs of which are thin blue lines. This sign is similar to the sign of an ordinary stream, but differs sharply from it in form: the line of the stream is always smoothly winding, and near the ditches the lines are broken with long, even sections without bends.

Group number 4. Vegetation

This group includes 15 topographic signs, most of which are area and, therefore, scale signs.

The first sign is land boundaries, that is, areas occupied by one or another natural or artificial vegetation. Every forest has an edge, a field, meadow, swamp has an edge. These are their borders, which are shown on topographic maps as a small dotted black line. But the boundaries of the land are not always shown with a dashed line: if there is a road right along the edge of the forest or along the edge of the arable land, meadows, then the sign of this road replaces the sign of the boundaries, that is, the road itself already delimits the forest from the field, the field from the meadow, the meadow from the swamp, etc. d. If the garden or cemetery is surrounded by a fence, then the fence is the boundary.

When held land boundaries dotted line (or some other sign) - that is, their contours are given, on both sides of the border a filling sign is given - the background and other icons that show what exactly the contour is occupied with, what kind of vegetation is in it.

Sign the woods- green background. If the forest is old (as they say - ripe), then the background is made dark green, and if the forest is young (forest growth) - lightlo green. Also shown areparks in populated areas.
It is important to know not only that this is a forest, but also what it is - what kind of things are in it.species of trees grow, how densely they grow.
There are special explanatory signs for this.
- characteristics stand. These signs areare images of small trees,signatures and numbers next to them. If in this forest(or parts of the forest) dominated by conifers,small Christmas trees are drawn on a green background, and if deciduous species predominate - small birch trees, in which the right sideon the crown is blackened. If the forest is mixed, both a Christmas tree andbirch. Abbreviated signature on the leftsigns indicate which breeds of needlesnyh and deciduous trees predominate here.

The fraction to the right of these icons means the following: the numerator of the fraction is the average height of trees in this forest in meters, the denominator is the average thickness of trunks at the level of a person’s head in meters, and the coefficient behind the fraction is the average distance between trees (that is, density the woods).

Found in the forests glades- long forest corridors. Such clearings are cut (cut) on purpose and so that the forest is better ventilated and illuminated by the sun. Most often, clearings are made mutually perpendicular: some go from north to south, others cross them from west to east. Clearings come in different widths: from 2-3 to 10-12 m, and sometimes there are very wide ones - up to 50 meters or more. Such large clearings are made for laying gas pipelines, oil pipelines, highways and railways, high-voltage power lines through forests.

Clearings divide the forest into quarters, and each forest quarter has its own number. At the intersections of the clearings there are block posts, on the edges of which these numbers are written with paint. Not every clearing has a road, there are very heavily overgrown clearings, along which it is even more difficult to make your way than straight through the forest. But the topographic sign of the clearing exactly corresponds to the sign of a simple dirt road - a thin black dashed line. A number is also placed here showing its width in meters.

For young growth forests, in addition to the light green background, an additional filling character is applied: small black circles go in rows along the background, but their rows are located at 45 ° to the map frames .

orchards are also depicted on a green background with rows of small black circles, but here their rows go at 90 ° to the map frames.

forest clearing shown on a white background. The sign that fills the contour of the cutting is staggered black vertical strokes with a short black horizontal stroke at the lower end.

Sign woodlands also, as a rule, is located on a white background in the form of black circles with a tail at the bottom, which is always directed to the east.

Large-scale topographic maps show individual groupsshrubs in the form of a black circle with three thickened black dots along the outer edge. This is an off-scale sign. If shrubs occupy large areas of the territory on the ground, they are already shown by a contour (dashed line), which is filled inside with a light green background, and circles with three points are scattered around the background in random order.

Narrow lanes of forest are depicted on cards without a green background as a chain of black circles. This is an off-scale sign of the forest belt. If the strip of forest is wide enough for a given map scale, then it is depicted as a regular forest symbol. There are also narrow strips of shrubs (hedges). They are depicted by an off-scale sign - a chain of small black circles alternating with thickened dots.

Along the roads, there are often specially planted trees, forming, as it were, a green corridor along the road (alley). These are casings, which are shown on the maps as small black circles on the sides of the road.

free standing trees(not in the forest, but in the field), if they are large and have the value of landmarks (that is, they are clearly visible from all sides at a sufficiently large distance), they are also indicated on topographic maps with their off-scale sign .

meadows have their own sign: small black quotation marks are placed in a checkerboard pattern inside the contour that bounds the meadow. Meadows can occupy very large spaces, they can stretch in narrow ribbons in the floodplain of rivers. Small clearings in the forest are also meadows. The sign of a passable swamp is almost always combined with the sign of a meadow, because such a swamp is always covered with grass.

Along the edges of the villages are gardens. The garden sign has undergone a major change in the recent past: the old sign was an oblique hatching with solid and dashed black lines, going in one direction or the other. New vegetable garden sign - gray background.

The last sign of this group, the sign arable land,

This is a white background with a black dotted outline.

Group number 5. Relief

The surface of our planet is very rarely flat. On any plain there are always at least slight elevations and depressions: hills , mounds, depressions, ravines, pits, cliffs along river banks. All this taken together represents the topography of the area. Relief is a set of irregularities in the earth's surface. All irregularities can be easily divided into two types - convexity and concavity. Convexity is considered to be positive forms, and concavities - negative forms of relief. Positive landforms include: a mountain, a hill (mound), a ridge, a hill, a mound, a dune, a sandy movable hill); to negative ones - a hollow, a lowland, a valley, a gorge, a ravine, a beam, a ravine, a pit. Forms: reliefs always alternate in space: any positive form smoothly or abruptly turns into a negative one, and a negative one sharply or smoothly turns into an adjacent positive one.

It is customary to divide flat terrain by the nature of the relief into three type:weakly crossed, medium crossed and strongly crossed terrain. The degree of ruggedness depends both on the frequency of alternation of convexities and concavities (ascents and descents), and on their height and steepness: where the relief is more "indented", that is, where ravines, hills, hollows, gullies are more common, and where they are especially high (deep) and their slopes are steeper, the terrain is considered to be very rugged.

Each landform has three parts (elements): the top or gold (for positive forms), the bottom (for negative ones), the sole (for positive ones), the edge or edge (for negative ones) and the slopes or walls for both.

slopes- a common element of both negative and positive landforms. They are steep, steep (sharp) and gentle (smooth). Depending on the prevailing slopes near the uplands and lowlands in a given area, we say: here is a soft and smooth relief or - here is a sharp, hard relief.

There are two main ways to convey relief forms on maps: smooth, soft forms are depicted by the so-called horizontal lines - thin brown lines, and sharp, hard forms - by a special line with denticles. These teeth, like any triangles, have a base and vertices. Where the tops of the teeth are directed, the slope descends there - it goes down an almost sheer cliff. To make it easy to distinguish a steep slope of natural origin from artificial cliffs on the map, jagged cliff lines are made in two colors - brown (natural cliffs along river valleys, ravines, etc.) and black (artificial embankments, dams, quarry slopes, etc. .). Next to the signs of cliffs is a figure showing the length of the cliff in meters.

Pits and mounds may be naturalmi and artificial. They can bevery deep (high), but small in area, and then they have todepict on maps off-scalesigns. If they have a significantdimensions by area, then showing them yut scale signs (Fig. 74). The number next to the sign of the mound and pit also indicates their depth and height.

Embankments and excavations along the road are also depicted on the maps with a jagged line, but already in black, since they are artificial structures. Where the teeth are directed with their sharp ends away from the railroad or highway bed, the road goes along the embankment, and where they are directed vice versa, towards the roadbed, along the recess. The numbers indicate the highest height of these slopes.

At the sign career, as a rule, the maps give an abbreviated signature, specifying what exactly is being mined in this quarry.

More complex rigid landforms are ravines, which are formed in loose sedimentary rocks under the action of soil erosion by rainwater flows and during snowmelt. Ravines are a “living” phenomenon, they are born, grow and gradually die. While the ravine is "young" (it is called ravine), its slopes are very steep, but gradually they crumble - they flatten out, overgrow with turf, bushes, the ravine stops growing and turns into beam (liewell, hollow). A ravine has a top, bottom and mouth. From one ravine to sides can depart lateral ravines with their tops - their called screwdrivers ravine. But screwdrivers, in turn, canmultiply, forming an intricate branching.

small river

Drying river

Sea, lake

well

spring, key

glades

Orchard

felling light forest

bushes

casing

meadows

Rigid landforms

Pits and mounds

Embankments and excavations

Career

Two typical representatives of soft landforms - antipodes Hill(hill) and basin(depression). You cannot show them on the map with a jagged line, since their slopes are gentle, smooth.

If you “cut” horizontally, cut the shape of the hill into even “slices”, then the entire slope of the hill will be surrounded by several closed lines of “cuts” - horizontals. And if you then draw these lines on paper, you get a figure that gives an idea of ​​the relief (Fig. 78). You just need to show with short strokes on the horizontal lines in which direction the slopes go down, since exactly the same figure will turn out if you cut through the basin with horizontal planes. Such strokes, showing the direction down from the horizontal, are called bergstrokes or slope indicators (in German, "berg" is a mountain).

This method of depicting soft landforms on maps and oncalled - the method of horizontals. Behind the beginning of the secant relief horizonplanes, the plane of the Baltic Sea level is taken.The next cutting plane is drawn, for example, 10 m higherlevel of the Baltic Sea, after it another 10 m in height - the second cutting plane, then, 10 m above it, - the third (already at a height30 m above sea level), etc. This distance (h) between the planes cutting the relief is called the height of the relief section and can be different: 2.5 m, 5 m, 10 m, 20 m, etc.

Each cutting plane will give on the map its own closed line of relief section - a horizontal line, and all together they will give a complete picture of contour lines - a general picture of the terrain. But since there will be a lot of contour lines on the map, in order not to get confused in them, to make it easier to distinguish and trace them, we decided to highlight some of the contour lines a little - make every fifth one thicker. Then the contours on the map, as they say, are better read. Thus, with a section height of, for example, 5 m, the thickened horizontal will be a horizontal located 25 m above the level of the Baltic Sea; the next thickened one is 50 m above sea level, etc.

In addition, on some contour lines, in convenient places, brown numbers are placed that indicate the height of this contour line in meters above sea level, or, as it is customary to call this value in topography, the horizontal mark. The very figure of the mark of one or another horizontal, in addition to the berghash, helps to understand in which direction the slope goes down: where this number has a bottom, the slope goes down, and where it goes up, there goes an ascent. Marks, in addition, are placed on the tops of mountains and hills. The side of the hill, which is steeper, on the map will be depicted as contour lines located close to each other, and the other, gentle side of the hill, on the contrary, will be depicted as sparse contour lines.

There is always a depression between the tops of two neighboring hills having a common sole. Such a depression is called a saddle. And under the saddle
on the slopes of hills, gullies and ravines most often appear - rigid landforms are always difficult to combine with
soft.

Group No. 6. Special signs

Signatures of names on maps are tried to be placed so that they do not cover important objects, and at the same time, one still has to make, for example, a gap in the signs of the road network where the signature of a settlement or the name of some other is superimposed on a road sign. local subject.

Signatures of the names of settlements are always made horizontal (west - east direction) in different fonts - in some places the letters of the inscription are fatter and taller, in others they are thinner and have a slight slope. Through such a difference in fonts, certain information is communicated to the card reader: an approximate
the number of inhabitants in the village. Where there are more inhabitants, there is a larger signature. Under each name of the settlement there are numbers that indicate the number of buildings (courtyards) in this village or town. There are letters next to these numbers.

"SS", denoting that in this locality there is a village council, that is, a local authority.

On their self-made maps and diagrams, tourists often enter special symbols showing the route traveled by the tourist group and its direction, crossing routes, places for overnight stays and days, places for daytime lunch breaks, places of interest along the route.

3. Consolidation of the studied material.

1. What are conventional signs?

2. How many groups can topographic symbols be divided into?

3. List these groups?

4. List what is linear?

5. List what applies to areal views?

6. How many groups are topographical signs divided into?

4. Summing up the lesson.

The teacher draws conclusions, evaluates the activities of those involved, gives an orientation for the next lesson.

5. Organizational moment.

The teacher tells the future plans for the coming week.

Topic 8. CARTOGRAPHIC SYMBOLS

8.1. CLASSIFICATION OF CONVENTIONAL SIGNS

On maps and plans, the image of terrain objects (situations) is presented in cartographic symbols. Cartographic symbols - a system of symbolic graphic designations used to depict various objects and phenomena on maps, their qualitative and quantitative characteristics. Symbols are sometimes also called "map legend".
For ease of reading and memorization, many conventional signs have styles that resemble the view of the local objects depicted by them from above or from the side. For example, conventional signs of factories, oil rigs, isolated trees, and bridges are similar in shape to the appearance of the listed local objects.
Cartographic symbols are usually divided into large-scale (contour), off-scale and explanatory (Fig. 8.1). In some textbooks, linear conventional signs are singled out as a separate group.

Rice. 8.1. Symbol types

large-scale (contour) signs are called conventional signs used to fill in the areas of objects expressed on the scale of a plan or map. According to a plan or map, it is possible to determine with the help of such a sign not only the location of the object, but its size and shape.
The boundaries of areal objects on the plan can be depicted with solid lines of different colors: black (buildings and structures, fences, roads, etc.), blue (reservoirs, rivers, lakes), brown (natural landforms), light pink (streets and area in settlements), etc. The dotted line is used for the boundaries of agricultural and natural lands of the area, the boundaries of embankments and cuts near roads. The boundaries of clearings, tunnels and some structures are indicated by a simple dotted line. The fill characters inside the outline are arranged in a certain order.
Linear symbols(a kind of scale conventional signs) are used when depicting objects of a linear nature - roads, power lines, borders, etc. The location and planned outline of the axis of a linear object are depicted accurately on the map, but their width is greatly exaggerated. For example, the symbol of a highway on maps at a scale of 1:100,000 exaggerates its width by 8 to 10 times.
If an object on a plan (map) cannot be expressed by a scale symbol due to its smallness, then off-scale symbol, for example, a landmark, a separately growing tree, a kilometer post, etc. The exact position of an object on the ground is shown main point off-scale symbol. The main point is:

• for signs of a symmetrical shape - in the center of the figure (Fig. 8.2);
• for signs with a wide base - in the middle of the base (Fig. 8.3);
• for signs that have a base in the form of a right angle - at the top of the corner (Fig. 8.4);
• for signs that are a combination of several figures - in the center of the lower figure (Fig. 8.5).

Rice. 8.2. Symmetrical signs
1 - points of the geodetic network; 2 - points of the survey network, fixed on the ground by centers; 3 - astronomical points; 4 - churches; 5 - plants, factories and mills without pipes; 6 - power plants; 7 - water mills and sawmills; 8 - fuel depots and gas tanks; 9 - mines and adits operating; 10 - oil and gas wells without rigs

Rice. 8.3. Signs with a wide base
1 - factory and factory pipes; 2 - waste heaps; 3 - telegraph and radiotelegraph offices and departments, telephone exchanges; 4 - meteorological stations; 5 - semaphores and traffic lights; 6 - monuments, monuments, mass graves, tours and stone pillars over 1 m high; 7 - Buddhist monasteries; 8 - separately lying stones

Rice. 8.4. Signs having a base in the form of a right angle
1 - wind turbines; 2 - gas stations and filling stations; 3 - windmills; 4 - permanent river signaling signs;
5 - free-standing deciduous trees; 6 - free-standing coniferous trees

Rice. 8.5. Signs that are a combination of several figures
1 - plants, factories and mills with pipes; 2 - transformer boxes; 3 - radio stations and television centers; 4 - oil and gas rigs; 5 - tower-type structures; 6 - chapels; 7 - mosques; 8 - radio masts and television masts; 9 - kilns for burning lime and charcoal; 10 - mazars, suborgans (religious buildings)

Objects, expressed by off-scale conventional signs, serve as good landmarks on the ground.
Explanatory symbols (Fig. 8.6, 8.7) are used in combination with large-scale and off-scale; they serve to additionally characterize local objects and their varieties. For example, the image of a coniferous or deciduous tree in combination with a symbol of a forest shows the dominant tree species in it, an arrow on a river indicates the direction of its flow, transverse strokes on a symbol of a railway show the number of tracks.

Rice. 8.6. Explanatory conventional signs of the bridge, highway, river

Rice. 8.7. Stand characteristics
In the numerator of the fraction - the average height of the trees in meters, in the denominator - the average thickness of the trunks, to the right of the fraction - the average distance between the trees

The maps contain signatures of their own names of settlements, rivers, lakes, mountains, forests and other objects, as well as explanatory signatures in the form of letters and numbers. They allow you to get additional information about the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of local objects and relief. Letter explanatory signatures are most often given in abbreviated form according to the established list of conditional abbreviations.
For a more visual depiction of the terrain on maps, each group of conventional signs relating to the same type of terrain elements (vegetation cover, hydrography, relief, etc.) is printed with ink of a certain color.

8.2. CONVENTIONAL SIGNS OF LOCAL ITEMS

Settlements on topographic maps at a scale of 1:25,000 - 1:100,000 they show everything (Fig. 8.8). Next to the image of the settlement, its name is signed: cities - in capital letters of a direct font, and a settlement of a rural type - in lowercase letters of a smaller font. Under the name of a rural-type settlement, the number of houses (if known) is indicated, and if there are district and village councils in them, their abbreviated signature (PC, CC).
The names of urban and suburban settlements are printed on the maps in italic capital letters. When depicting settlements on maps, their external outlines and the nature of the layout are preserved, the main and through passages, industrial enterprises, prominent buildings and other buildings that are important as landmarks are distinguished.
Wide streets and squares depicted on the scale of the map are shown with large-scale conventional signs in accordance with their actual size and configuration, other streets are shown with conventional off-scale signs, the main (main) streets are highlighted on the map with a wider gap.

Rice. 8.8. Settlements

Settlements are depicted in the most detail on maps at a scale of 1:25,000 and 1:50,000. Quarters with predominantly fire-resistant and non-fire-resistant buildings are painted over with the appropriate color. Buildings located on the outskirts of settlements are shown, as a rule, all.
On a map of scale 1: 100,000, the image of all main streets, industrial facilities and the most important objects of landmark value is mainly preserved. Separate buildings within blocks are shown only in settlements with very sparse buildings, for example, in dacha-type settlements.
When depicting all other settlements, the buildings are combined into quarters and filled with black paint, the fire resistance of buildings on the map 1:100,000 is not highlighted.
Selected local items Landmarks that matter are mapped most accurately. Such local items include various towers and towers, mines and adits, wind turbines, churches and separately located buildings, radio masts, monuments, individual trees, barrows, remnant rocks, etc. All of them, as a rule, are depicted on maps conventional off-scale signs, and some are accompanied by abbreviated explanatory captions. For example, the signature check ug. with the sign of the mine means that the mine is hard coal.

Rice. 8.9. Selected local items

Road network on topographic maps is depicted in full and in detail. Railways show everything on maps and are divided according to the number of tracks (one-, two- and three-track), gauge (normal and narrow gauge) and condition (operating, under construction and dismantled). Electrified railways are distinguished by special conventional signs. The number of tracks is indicated by dashes perpendicular to the axis of the conventional sign of the road: three dashes - three-track, two - double-track, one - single-track.
On the railways, stations, sidings, platforms, depots, wayposts and booths, embankments, excavations, bridges, tunnels, semaphores and other structures are shown. Own names of the station (sidings, platforms) are signed next to their conventional signs. If the station is located in a settlement or near it and has the same name as it, then its signature is not given, but the name of this settlement is underlined. The black rectangle inside the station symbol indicates the location of the station relative to the tracks: if the rectangle is in the middle, then the tracks pass on both sides of the station.

Rice. 8.10. Railway stations and facilities

Conventional signs of platforms, checkpoints, booths and tunnels are accompanied by the corresponding abbreviated signatures ( sq., bl. n., B, tun.). Next to the conventional sign of the tunnel, in addition, its numerical characteristic is placed in the form of a fraction, in the numerator of which the height and width are indicated, and in the denominator - the length of the tunnel in meters.
Highway and ground roads when depicted on maps, they are divided into paved and unpaved roads. Paved roads include freeways, improved highways, highways, and improved dirt roads. Topographic maps show all paved roads available in the area. The width and material of the pavement of motorways and highways are signed directly on their conventional signs. For example, on the highway the signature 8(12)A means: 8 - width of the covered part of the road in meters; 12 - width of the road from ditch to ditch; BUT- coating material (asphalt). On improved dirt roads, only the width of the road from ditch to ditch is usually given. Freeways, improved highways, and highways are highlighted in orange on maps, improved dirt roads - in yellow or orange.

Figure 8.11. Highways and dirt roads

Topographic maps show unsurfaced (country), field and forest roads, caravan routes, trails and winter roads. In the presence of a dense network of roads of a higher class, some secondary roads (field, forest, dirt) on maps at a scale of 1:200,000, 1:100,000, and sometimes 1:50,000 may not be shown.
Sections of dirt roads passing through wetlands, lined with bundles of brushwood (fascines) on wooden beds and then covered with a layer of earth or sand, are called fascinated road sections. If on such sections of the road, instead of fascines, a flooring of logs (poles) or simply an embankment of earth (stones) is made, then they are called gats and rowings, respectively. Fashin sections of roads, gati and rowing on the maps are indicated by dashes perpendicular to the conventional sign of the road.
On highways and dirt roads, bridges, pipes, embankments, excavations, tree plantings, kilometer posts and passes (in mountainous areas) are shown.
Bridges they are depicted on maps with conventional signs of various shapes depending on the material (metal, reinforced concrete, stone and wood); at the same time, two-tier, as well as drawbridges and drawbridges are distinguished. Bridges on floating supports are distinguished by a special symbol. Next to the conventional signs of bridges having a length of 3 m or more and located on roads (except for motorways and improved highways), they sign their numerical characteristics in the form of a fraction, the numerator of which indicates the length and width of the bridge in meters, and the denominator - the carrying capacity in tons. Before the fraction indicate the material from which the bridge is built, as well as the height of the bridge above the water level in meters (on navigable rivers). For example, the signature next to the symbol of the bridge (Fig. 8.12) means that the bridge is stone (construction material), in the numerator - the length and width of the roadway in meters, in the denominator - the carrying capacity in tons.

Rice. 8.12. Overpass over the railroad

When designating bridges on freeways and improved highways, only their length and width are given. The characteristics of bridges with a length of less than 3 m are not given.

8.3. HYDROGRAPHY (WATER BODIES)

Topographic maps show the coastal part of the seas, lakes, rivers, canals (ditches), streams, wells, springs, ponds and other bodies of water. Their names are signed next to them. The larger the scale of the map, the more detailed the water bodies are depicted.
Lakes, ponds and other bodies of water are shown on maps if their area is 1 mm2 or more on the scale of the map. Reservoirs of smaller sizes are shown only in arid and desert regions, as well as in cases where they have the value of reliable landmarks.

Rice. 8.13. Hydrography

Rivers, streams, canals and main ditches topographic maps show everything. At the same time, it was found that on maps of scales 1:25,000 and 1:50,000, rivers up to 5 m wide, and on maps of a scale of 1:100,000 - up to 10 m, are indicated by one line, wider rivers - by two lines. Channels and ditches with a width of 3 m or more are depicted with two lines, with a width of less than 3 m - with one.
The width and depth of the rivers (channels) in meters are signed as a fraction: in the numerator - the width, in the denominator - the depth and nature of the bottom soil. Such signatures are placed in several places along the river (channel).
River speed (m/s), depicted by two lines, indicate in the middle of the arrow showing the direction of the flow. On rivers and lakes, they also sign the height of the water level in low water in relation to sea level (marks of water edges).
On the rivers and canals they show dams, gateways, ferries (transportation), fords and give corresponding characteristics.
Wells are indicated by blue circles, next to which the letter is placed To or signature art. to. (artesian well).
Ground water pipelines show solid blue lines with dots (through 8 mm), and underground - broken lines.
To make it easier to find and select sources of water supply in the steppe and desert regions on the map, the main wells are distinguished by a larger symbol. In addition, if there is data to the left of the symbol of the well, an explanatory signature of the ground level mark is given, to the right - the depth of the well in meters and the filling rate in liters per hour.

8.4. SOIL AND VEGETATION COVER

Soil -vegetable cover are usually depicted on maps with large-scale symbols. These include conventional signs of forests, shrubs, gardens, parks, meadows, marshes and salt marshes, as well as conventional signs depicting the nature of the soil cover: sands, rocky surface, pebbles, etc. When designating the soil and vegetation cover, a combination of conditional signs. For example, in order to show a swampy meadow with bushes, the contour is the area occupied by the meadow, inside which the symbols of the swamp, meadow and bushes are placed.
The contours of areas covered with forests, shrubs, as well as the contours of swamps, meadows are indicated on the maps by a dotted line. If a linear local object (ditch, fence, road) serves as the boundary of a forest, garden or other area, then in this case the symbol of a linear local object replaces the dotted line.
Forest, shrubs. The forest area inside the contour is painted over with green paint. The tree species is shown with a deciduous, coniferous tree icon, or a combination of both when the forest is mixed. If there is data on the height, thickness of trees and density of the forest, its characteristics are indicated with explanatory signatures and numbers. For example, the signature indicates that coniferous trees (pine) predominate in this forest, their average height is 25 m, the average thickness is 30 cm, the average distance between tree trunks is 4 m. When depicted on the map, clearings indicate their width in meters.

Rice. 8.14. The woods

Rice. 8.15. shrubs

Rice. 8.16. swamps

The depth of difficult and impenetrable swamps is signed next to the vertical arrow indicating the location of the sounding. Impenetrable and impassable swamps are shown on the maps with the same symbol.
Salt marshes on the maps they are shown by vertical shading in blue with their division into passable (broken shading) and impassable (solid shading).

On topographic maps, as their scale decreases, homogeneous topographic symbols are combined into groups, the latter - into one generalized symbol, etc. In general, the system of these designations can be represented as a truncated pyramid, at the base of which are signs for topographic plans at a scale of 1:500, and at the top - for survey topographic maps at a scale of 1:1,000,000.

8.5. COLORS OF TOPOGRAPHIC SYMBOLS

Colors topographic symbols are the same for maps of all scales. Line marks of lands and their contours, buildings, structures, local objects, strongholds and boundaries are printed when publishing black color, relief elements - brown; reservoirs, streams, swamps and glaciers - blue(mirror of water - light blue); areas of tree and shrub vegetation - green(dwarf forests, elfins, shrubs, vineyards in light green), fire-resistant neighborhoods and highways in orange, non-fire-resistant neighborhoods and improved dirt roads in yellow.
Along with topographic symbols for topographic maps, conditional abbreviations of own names political and administrative units (for example, Lugansk region - Lug.) and explanatory terms (for example, power plant - el.-st., southwestern - SW, worker's settlement - r. p.).

8.6. CARTOGRAPHIC FONTS USED ON TOPOGRAPHIC PLANS AND MAPS

A font is a graphic style of letters and numbers. Fonts that are used on topographic pianos and maps are called cartographic.

Depending on a number of graphic features, cartographic fonts are divided into groups:
- according to the slope of the letters - straight (ordinary) and italic with slopes to the right and left;
- according to the width of the letters - narrow, normal and wide;
- by lightness - light, bold and bold;
- by the presence of undercuts.

On topographic maps and plans, two types of basic fonts are mainly used: topographic and skeleton italics (Fig. 8.17).

Rice. 8.17. Core fonts and cursive numerals

Topographic (hairline) font T-132 is used to sign rural-type settlements. It is drawn with a line thickness of 0.1-0.15 mm, all elements of the letters are thin hair lines.
Base italic finds application in the design of topographic maps, agricultural maps, land management pianos, etc. On topographic maps, explanatory signatures and characteristics are made in italics: astronomical points, ruins, factories, factories, stations, etc. The design of the letters has a pronounced oval shape . The thickness of all elements is the same: 0.1 - 0.2 mm.
Computational Font or cursive letters of numbers, belongs to the group of cursive fonts. It was designed for entries in field journals and computational sheets, since in geodesy many processes of field and cameral work were associated with recording the results of instrumental measurements and their mathematical processing (see Fig. 8.17).
Modern Computer techologies provide a wide, virtually unlimited choice of fonts different kind, size, pattern and slope.

8.7. SIGNS ON TOPOGRAPHIC PLANS AND MAP

In addition to conventional signs, there are various inscriptions on topographic plans and maps. They constitute an important element of the content, explain the depicted objects, indicate their qualitative and quantitative characteristics, and serve to obtain reference information.

According to their meaning, the inscriptions are:

• own names of geographical objects (cities, rivers, lakes
  and etc.);
• part of a conventional sign (garden, arable land);
• conventional signs and own names at the same time (signatures of the names of cities, objects of hydrography, relief);
• explanatory captions (lake, mountain, etc.);
• explanatory text (transfer information about the distinctive features of objects, specify their nature and purpose) (Fig. 8.18).

The inscriptions on the cards are made in different fonts, differing in the pattern of letters. Up to 15 different fonts can be used on maps. The pattern of the letters of each font has elements that are unique to this font, which is based on knowledge of the features of various fonts.
Certain fonts are used for groups of related objects. For example, roman fonts are used for city names, italic fonts for names of hydrographic objects, etc. Each inscription on the map should be well read.
In the arrangement of inscriptions of their own names there are distinctive features. The names of settlements are located on the right side of the contour parallel to the northern or southern side of the map frame. This position is most desirable, but not always feasible. The names should not cover the images of other objects and fit in the map frame, so it is necessary to place the names to the left, above and below the contour of the settlement.

Rice. 8.18. Examples of inscriptions on maps

The names of areal objects are placed inside the contours, so that the signature is evenly distributed over the entire area of ​​the object. The name of the river is placed parallel to its channel. Depending on the width of the river, the inscription is placed inside or outside the outline. It is customary to sign large rivers several times: at the source, at characteristic bends, at the confluence of rivers, etc. When one river flows into another, the inscriptions of the names are placed so that there is no doubt about the name of the rivers. Before the confluence, the main river and tributary are signed, after the confluence, the name of the main river is required.
When arranging inscriptions located not horizontally, special attention is paid to their readability. The following rule is followed: if the elongated contour along which the inscription is to be placed is located from northwest to southeast, then the inscription is placed from top to bottom; if the contour stretches from northeast to southwest, then the inscription is placed from bottom to top.
The names of the seas and large lakes are placed inside the contour of the basins along a smooth curve, in the direction of their length and symmetrically to the shores. The inscriptions of small lakes are placed as inscriptions of settlements.
The names of the mountains are placed, if possible, to the right of the top of the mountains and parallel to the southern or northern frame. The names of mountain ranges, sand formations and deserts are signed in the direction of their length.
Explanatory inscriptions are placed parallel to the north side of the frame.
Numerical characteristics are arranged depending on the nature of the information they transmit. The number of houses in rural-type settlements, elevations of the earth's surface and water lines are signed parallel to the northern or southern side of the frame. The speed of the river flow, the width of the roads and the material of their coating are located along the axis of the object.
Labels should be located in the least loaded places of the cartographic image, so that there is no doubt about which object they refer to. The inscriptions should not cross the confluence of rivers, the characteristic details of the relief, images of objects that have the value of landmarks.

Basic rules for constructing cartographic fonts: http://www.topogis.ru/oppks.html

Questions and tasks for self-control

1. What are conventional signs?
2. What types of symbols do you know?
3. What objects are depicted on maps with large-scale symbols?
4. What objects are depicted on maps with off-scale symbols?
5. What is the purpose of the main point of the off-scale symbol?
6. Where is the main point located on the out-of-scale symbol?
7. What is the purpose of color schemes?
8. What is the purpose of using explanatory labels and numbers on maps?

On sections of the road with visible irregularities, signs warning about this should be installed.

A common problem on roads is the appearance of ruts from heavy trucks.

When hit in a rut, the car becomes difficult to control, especially with wide tires. And if this happens at speed, it can serve as an exit into a ditch or into an oncoming lane.

In this article:

Road sign requirements 1.16

The "Rough Road" sign warns motorists of the possible danger of collision with other road users, as well as wear or damage to the vehicle's suspension.

The first thing the sign requires is to keep a safe speed. The second is to be ready to go around an obstacle or slow down.

A common mistake of drivers is to brake hard in front of the nose of a moving car, which leads to a collision. However, in a little-known area or at night, the driver cannot know for sure the road surface.

For which the installation of sign 1.16 is provided, in order to react with the steering wheel or braking force at any time with unevenness on the road.

To remedy the situation with damage to roads by multi-ton trucks, the legislation of the Russian Federation introduced a fee per kilometer for heavy trucks over 12 tons. This will keep the roads in good condition according to the meaning of our legislator. Well, let's wait and see.

Rules for installing a sign 1.16

The roughness of the road can be associated with undulations, potholes, not smooth connections with the bridge structure. In this case, in accordance with the provisions of GOST, it is necessary to set warnings.

The "Rough Road" sign is placed directly in front of a section with bumps. If this section is located in the city, then the warning will be valid at a distance of 50-100 meters, outside the city at a distance of 150-300 meters, and also at a different distance in accordance with the sign on the plate 8.1.1.

When carrying out repair work in the area of ​​conducting these works, there may be bumps in the road, about which, before entering, temporary warnings of the sign 1.16 can be placed. The difference between a stationary sign and a temporary one will be the change of the image of the sign to a yellow background, which will be temporary.

The action of the sign will extend to the nearest intersection, if the road remains uneven, sign 1.16 will be duplicated after the intersection.

In any case, the driver must be warned of the danger, as a timely warning will ensure traffic safety for motor vehicles.

Liability for violation of the mark 1.16

Legal acts of an administrative nature do not provide for liability for violation of the requirements of mark 1.16. But ignoring the warning measures by the driver will adversely affect traffic safety. Out of the rut, the car can be thrown onto, which will inevitably cause a collision with an oncoming car.

According to the statistics of traffic accidents, a head-on collision often leads to serious consequences for drivers and passengers. And if there is a truck in the oncoming lane, then this can have fatal consequences for the driver who flew into the oncoming lane under the wheels of the truck.