Symbols on topographic maps. Conventional signs, crosses, scale of topographic survey. All diagrams indicate

Geography. Modern illustrated encyclopedia. - M.: Rosman. Under the editorship of prof. A. P. Gorkina. 2006 .

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• , . Symbols for topographic plans. Scales 1: 5000, 1: 2000, 1: 1000 and 1: 500 Reproduced in the original author's spelling of the 1973 edition (Nedra Publishing House). ...
• Symbols for topographic plans , . Conventional signs for topographic plans. Scales 1: 5000, 1: 2000, 1: 1000 and 1: 500 Reproduced in the original author's spelling of the 1973 edition (Nedra publishing house ...

To depict various objects and processes, their qualitative and quantitative characteristics on maps, a special language is used - conventional signs (symbols).

Conventional signs on geographical maps perform two functions at once - they determine the spatial position of objects and indicate their appearance and some characteristics. There are areal (or scale), linear, off-scale and explanatory symbols. The list of all symbols used on the map and their explanations contains map legend. From reading the legend, you can get an idea of ​​the map without looking at it.

The objects depicted on the maps can be any objects, phenomena or processes. They are depicted in a variety of ways. Let's look at the cards we already know.

The relief of the earth is depicted layered coloring. Thus, lowlands with heights from 0 to 200 m are painted over in green, and hills with heights from 200 to 500 m are light brown. What height each color corresponds to can be seen from the table placed at the bottom of the map. It's called the elevation scale. Using it, you can quickly determine the approximate height of any part of the territory. The same is true for the depth scale. The heights of some mountain peaks or lowlands, as well as the depths of oceanic depressions, are shown on the map and globe in meters.

Mineral resources of the Earth (coal, oil, gas, gold, diamonds, etc.) are shown on the map special icons. These are international badges, they are clear to everyone.

Contours(from the Greek isos - equal) - lines on geographical maps passing through points with the same values ​​of some geographical phenomenon, for example, atmospheric pressure - isobars, air temperature - isotherms, height earth's surface — isohypses (horizontal).

Habitat method used on maps of vegetation, wildlife, forest maps. With its help, the areas of distribution (ranges) of certain species of plants, animals or forests of different composition are shown: coniferous, mixed, etc.

Traffic signs depict the movement of various objects and phenomena on the map: sea currents, winds, air masses, as well as the transport of goods and passengers.

Quality background used, for example, to depict religious or national composition population.

Cartogram depicts geographical objects or phenomena on a map with diagrammatic figures, for example, industry major cities on the industry map.

map- a schematic map that does not have a degree grid, depicts geographical objects and phenomena simply and clearly. For example, a map of the weather, a map of the country's trade relations, maps of routes and travel, etc.

Selected symbols for topographic plans on a scale of 1:500 and 1:1000:

№	Name with characteristics of a topographic object	Conditional topographic signs on the terrain plan
1	Points of the state geodetic network
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10	Buildings: Residential fire-resistant: (stone, brick, concrete) 1) one-story; 2) more than one floor	1) 2)
11	Fire-resistant non-residential buildings: (stone, brick, concrete) 1) one-story; 2) more than one floor	1) 2)
12	Non-fire-resistant residential buildings: (wooden, adobe, etc.) 1) one-story; 2) more than one floor	1) 2)
13	Non-residential non-fire-resistant buildings (wooden, adobe, etc.) 1) one-story; 2) more than one floor	1) 2)
14	Buildings under construction
15	Dilapidated and destroyed buildings
16	Marking the height of the floor of the first floor (inside the contour); Ground mark on the corner of the house
17	Church buildings: 1) stone with domes of different heights; 2) wooden with one dome	1) 2)
18	Mosques: 1) stone; 2) wooden	1) 2)
19	Small buildings: 1) individual garages; 2) toilets	1) 2)
20	Slopes: Unreinforced (figure 2, 5 - slope height in meters)
21	Unreinforced slopes (figure 102, 5 - slope height in meters)
22	Reinforced slopes (number 102, 5 - slope height in meters; inscription - a way to strengthen)
23	Open pit mining of solid minerals (quarries, etc.) (figure - depth in meters)
24	gas stations
25	Electrical substations, transformer boxes with their numbers
26	Wells and wells combined with water towers
27	Electric lamps on poles
28	Inspection wells (hatches) of underground utilities: 1) without appointment; 2) on water supply networks; 3) on sewer networks; 4) on heating networks; 5) on gas pipelines	1) 2) 3) 4)
29	Power transmission lines (Power lines) in an undeveloped area (figures - truss heights in meters, voltage in kV, number of wires or cables): 1) high voltage power lines on reinforced concrete trusses; 2) high voltage power lines on metal trusses; 3) high-voltage cable overhead power lines on reinforced concrete and wooden poles; 4) Low voltage power lines on metal and wooden poles	1) 2) 3) 4)
30	Power transmission lines (Power lines) in the built-up area: 1) high voltage power lines on wooden farms; 2) high voltage power lines on poles; 3) high voltage cable overhead power lines on poles; 4) Low voltage power lines on wooden poles	1) 2) 3) 4)
31	Pipelines: Ground ( G- gas pipeline, AT- water pipes, To- sewerage, H- oil pipelines; pipe material - bet., st. and etc.; numbers - pipe diameter in millimeters): 1) ground on the ground; 2) on supports (numbers are the height of the supports in meters)	1) 2)
32	Underground pipelines: 1) pipelines with inspection wells (numbers - numbers and elevations of wells; ch. 12— pipe laying depth); 2) pipelines laid side by side in one trench (numbers - the number of gaskets); 3) the direction of fluid flow in gravity gaskets	1) 2) 3)
33	Waste gratings
34	Surface pipelines on supports (green wash)
35	Pipelines on the bottom surface (green hillshade)
36	Communication lines and technical means of control are aerial wired (telephone, radio, television, etc.)
37	Masts, towers, radio and television repeaters (numbers are their heights in meters)	1:1000 1:500
38	Landfill (dashed lines in brown)
40	Wasteland, Construction sites
42	Roads: 1) highways (covering material - concrete); cuvettes in green. 2) highways with improved surface (asphalt); cuvettes in green.	1) 2)
43	Roadways and sidewalks: Washing in pink 1) carriageways of streets in the presence of side stone; 2) carriageways of streets without side stone; 3) sidewalks with a hard surface; 4) unpaved sidewalks
44	Unpaved roads: 1) improved dirt roads; cuvettes in green. 2) dirt roads (field, forest, country roads);	1) 2) 3)
45	Roads in recesses (numbers are the depths of recesses in meters); cuvettes in green.
46	Railways
47	Narrow gauge railways (appointment and gauge in millimeters)
48	Railways on embankments (figures - height of embankments in meters)
49	Station tracks	1:1000 1:500
50	Pedestrian bridges over railways (letters - bridge material)
52	Horizontals (in brown): 1) thickened (through a given interval of section height); 2) basic; 3) semi-horizontal (half the height of the section); 4) quarter-horizontal (in 1/4 section height)	1) 2) 3) 4)
53	Slope direction indicators (bergstrokes)
54	Height marks
55	Ground cliffs (in brown): (numbers - depth in meters)
56	Pits (numbers - depth in meters)
57	Mounds (numbers - height in meters)
59	Streams, shorelines and water-line markers (height and date of measurement), land-water boundary in green, hillshade in blue.
60	Streams (width not expressed in plan scale) in blue.
61	Characteristics of watercourses: 1) direction and speed of the current in m/s; 2) width in meters (numerator), depth in meters and bottom soil (denominator)
62	Bridges: 1) on a common span (metal - metal, stone - stone, reinforced concrete, reinforced concrete, numbers - load capacity in tons); 2) small wooden; 3) on foot	1) 2) 3)
63	Vegetation: Contours of vegetation, agricultural land, soil, etc.
64	Characteristics of forest stands in terms of composition: 1) deciduous; 2) coniferous; 3) mixed; according to qualitative data: 4) average height of trees in meters (numerator), average thickness of trunks in meters (denominator), average distance between trees in meters (number on the right), tree species	1) 2) 3) 4)
65	Natural tall forests
66	Young forest plantations (figure - average height in meters)
67	Forest areas cut down
68	Shrubs separate groups
69	Thickets (with indication of species and average height)
70	Vegetation herbaceous, meadow
71	Fruit orchards (figure - average height in meters)
72	Lawns, flower beds
73	arable land
74	Hayfields with groups of shrubs
75	Pasture with light forest
76	Soils: 1) sands are even (brown);

All objects on the ground, the situation and characteristic forms of relief are displayed on topographic plans with conventional signs.

Symbols on topographic survey

The main four types into which conventional signs are divided:

1. Explanatory captions.
2. Linear symbols.
3. Areal (contour).
4. Off-scale.

Explanatory captions are used to indicate additional characteristics of the depicted objects: near the river they sign the speed of the current and its direction, near the bridge - the width, length and its carrying capacity, near the roads - the nature of the coating and the width of the carriageway itself, etc.

Linear symbols (designations) are used to display linear objects: power lines, roads, product pipelines (oil, gas), communication lines, etc. The width shown on the topoplan of linear objects is off-scale.

Contour or area symbols depict those objects that can be displayed in accordance with the scale of the map and occupy a certain area. The contour is drawn with a thin solid line, broken or depicted as a dotted line. The formed contour is filled with symbols (meadow vegetation, woody, garden, vegetable garden, bush thickets, etc.).

To display objects that cannot be expressed on a map scale, off-scale conventional symbols are used, while the location of such an off-scale object is determined by its characteristic point. For example: the center of a geodetic point, the base of a kilometer post, the centers of radio, television towers, chimneys of factories and factories.

In topography, displayed objects are usually divided into eight main segments (classes):

1. Relief
2. Mathematical basis
3. Soils and vegetation
4. Hydrography
5. Road network
6. Industrial enterprises
7. Settlements,
8. Signatures and borders.

Collections of symbols for maps and topographic plans of various scales are created in accordance with such a division into objects. Approved state. they are the same bodies for all topographic plans and are obligatory when drawing any topographic surveys (topographic surveys).

Common symbols on topographic surveys:

State points. geodetic network and densification points

- Land use and allotment boundaries with landmarks at turning points

- Buildings. Numbers indicate the number of storeys. Explanatory signatures are given to indicate the fire resistance of the building (w - residential non-fire-resistant (wooden), n - non-residential non-fire-resistant, kn - stone non-residential, kzh - stone residential (usually brick), smzh and smn - mixed residential and mixed non-residential - wooden buildings with thin cladding brick or with floors built of different materials(the first floor is brick, the second is wooden)). The dotted line shows the building under construction.

- Slopes. They are used to display ravines, road embankments and other artificial and natural landforms with sharp elevation changes.

- Pillars of power transmission lines and communication lines. Symbols repeat the shape of the section of the column. Round or square. At reinforced concrete pillars, there is a dot in the center of the symbol. One arrow in the direction of the electrical wires - low-voltage, two - high-voltage (6kv and above)

- Underground and overground communications. Underground - dotted line, aboveground - solid. The letters indicate the type of communication. K - sewerage, G - gas, H - oil pipeline, V - water supply, T - heating main. Additional explanations are also given: The number of wires for cables, gas pipeline pressure, pipe material, their thickness, etc.

- Various areal objects with explanatory captions. Wasteland, arable land, construction site, etc.

- Railways

- Car roads. The letters indicate the coating material. A - asphalt, Shch - crushed stone, C - cement or concrete slabs. On dirt roads, the material is not indicated, and one of the sides is shown as a dotted line.

- Wells and wells

- Bridges across rivers and streams

- Horizontals. They serve to display the terrain. They are lines formed when the earth's surface is cross-sectioned by parallel planes at equal intervals of height change.

- Marks of heights of characteristic points of the terrain. As a rule, in the Baltic system of heights.

- Various tree vegetation. Indicates the dominant species of woody vegetation, the average height of trees, their thickness and the distance between trees (density)

- Free standing trees

- Shrubs

- Various meadow vegetation

- Waterlogged with reed vegetation

- Fences. Fences made of stone and reinforced concrete, wooden, picket fence, chain-link mesh, etc.

Commonly used abbreviations in surveying:

Buildings:

H - Non-residential building.

J - Residential.

KN - Stone non-residential

KZh - Stone residential

PAGE - under construction

FUND. - Foundation

SMN - Mixed non-residential

CSF - Mixed Residential

M. - Metallic

development - Destroyed (or collapsed)

Gar. - Garage

T. - Toilet

Communication lines:

3pr. - Three wires on a power pole

1 cab. - One cable per pole

b/pr - without wires

tr. - Transformer

K - Sewerage

Cl. - Storm sewerage

T - Heating main

H - Oil pipeline

cab. - cable

V - Communication lines. Numeric number of cables, for example 4V - four cables

n.a. - Low pressure

s.d. - medium pressure

o.d. - High pressure

Art. - Steel

chug - Cast iron

bet. - Concrete

Areal symbols:

bld. pl. - Construction site

og. - vegetable garden

empty - Wasteland

Roads:

A - Asphalt

Shch - Rubble

C - Cement, concrete slabs

D - Wooden coating. Almost never occurs.

dor. zn. - Road sign

dor. decree. - Road sign

Water objects:

K - Well

well - Well

art.well - artesian well

vdkch. - Water tower

bass. - Swimming pool

vdkhr. - Reservoir

clay - Clay

Symbols may differ on plans of different scales, therefore, to read the topoplan, it is necessary to use the symbols for the appropriate scale.

How to read conventional signs on a topographic survey

Let's consider how to correctly understand what we see on a topographic survey using a specific example and how they will help us .

Below is a 1:500 scale topographic survey of a private house with a land plot and the surrounding area.

In the upper left corner we see an arrow with which it is clear how the topographic survey is oriented in the north direction. On a topographic survey, this direction may not be indicated, since by default the plan should be oriented with the upper part to the north.

The nature of the relief in the survey area: the area is flat with a slight decrease to the south. The elevation difference from north to south is approximately 1 meter. The height of the southernmost point is 155.71 meters, and the northernmost point is 156.88 meters. Elevation marks were used to display the relief, covering the entire area of ​​topographic survey and two horizontals. The upper thin one with a mark of 156.5 meters (not signed on topographic survey) and the thickened one located to the south with a mark of 156 meters. At any point lying on the 156th horizontal, the mark will be exactly 156 meters above sea level.

The topographic survey shows four identical crosses located at equal distances in the form of a square. This is a coordinate grid. They serve to graphically determine the coordinates of any point on a topographic survey.

Next, we will sequentially describe what we see from north to south. In the upper part of the topoplan there are two parallel dotted lines with the inscription "Valentinovskaya street" between them and two letters "A". This means that we see a street called Valentinovskaya, the roadway of which is covered with asphalt, without a curb (since these are dashed lines. Solid lines are drawn with the curb, indicating the height of the curb, or two marks are given: the top and bottom of the curb stone).

Let's describe the space between the road and the fence of the site:

1. It runs horizontally. The relief goes down towards the site.
2. In the center of this part of the survey there is a concrete pole of a power line, from which cables with wires extend in the directions indicated by the arrows. Cable voltage 0.4kv. There is also a street lamp hanging from the pole.
3. To the left of the pillar, we see four broad-leaved trees (it can be oak, maple, linden, ash, etc.)
4. Below the pillar, parallel to the road with a branch towards the house, an underground gas pipeline was laid (yellow dotted line with the letter G). The pressure, material and diameter of the pipe are not indicated on the topographic survey. These characteristics are specified after agreement with the gas industry.
5. The two short parallel segments encountered in this area of ​​topographic survey are a conventional sign of herbaceous vegetation (forbs)

Let's move on to the site.

The facade of the plot is fenced with a metal fence with a height of more than 1 meter with a gate and a gate. The facade of the left (or right, if you look from the side of the street at the site) is exactly the same. The facade of the right section is fenced wooden fence on a stone, concrete or brick foundation.

Vegetation on the site: lawn grass with separate pine trees (4 pieces) and fruit trees (also 4 pieces).

On the site there is a concrete pole with a power cable from the pole on the street to the house on the site. An underground gas branch to the house departs from the gas pipeline route. Underground water supply is brought to the house from the neighboring plot. The fencing of the western and southern parts of the site is made of chain-link mesh, the eastern part is made of a metal fence more than 1 meter high. In the southwestern part of the site, a part of the fences of neighboring sites from a chain-link mesh and a solid wooden fence is visible.

Buildings on the site: In the upper (northern) part of the site there is a residential one-story wooden house. 8 is the number of the house on Valentinovskaya street. The floor level mark in the house is 156.55 meters. In the eastern part, a terrace with a wooden covered porch is attached to the house. In the western part of the neighboring area there is a destroyed extension to the house. There is a well near the northeast corner of the house. In the southern part of the site there are three wooden non-residential buildings. One of them is attached to a canopy on poles.

Vegetation in neighboring areas: in the area located to the east - woody vegetation, to the west - herbaceous.

On the site located to the south, a residential one-story wooden house is visible.

That's the way help to obtain a sufficiently large amount of information about the territory on which the topographic survey was carried out.

And finally, this is how this topographic survey applied to an aerial photograph looks like:

People who do not have special education in the field of geodesy or cartography may not understand the crosses depicted on maps and topographic plans. What is this symbol?

This is the so-called coordinate grid, the intersection of integer or exact coordinate values. The coordinates used on maps and topographic maps can be geographic and rectangular. Geographic coordinates are latitude and longitude, rectangular coordinates are distances from the conditional origin in meters. For example, state cadastral registration is conducted in rectangular coordinates ax and each region uses its own system of rectangular coordinates, which differs in the conditional origin in different regions of Russia (for the Moscow region, the coordinate system MSK-50 is adopted). For maps over large areas, geographic coordinates are usually used (latitude and longitude, which you could also see in GPS navigators).

A topographic survey or topographic survey is carried out in a rectangular coordinate system and the crosses that we see on such a topographic plan are the intersections of the round coordinate values. If there are two topographic surveys of adjacent areas in the same coordinate system, they can be combined by these crosses and a topographic survey for two areas at once can be obtained, from which more complete information about the adjacent territory can be obtained.

Distance between crosses on topographic survey

In accordance with the rules and regulations, they are always located at a distance of 10 cm from each other and form regular squares. By measuring this distance on the paper version of the topographic survey, you can determine whether the scale of the topographic survey is observed when printing or photocopying the source material. This distance should always be 10 centimeters between adjacent crosses. If it differs significantly, but not by an integer number of times, then such material cannot be used, since it does not correspond to the declared scale of the topographic survey.

If the distance between the crosses differs by several times from 10 cm, then most likely such a topographic survey was printed out for some tasks that do not require compliance with the original scale. For example: if the distance between crosses on topographic survey 1:500 scale - 5 cm, which means it was printed on a scale of 1:1000, while distorting all the symbols, but at the same time reducing the size of the printed material, which can be used as an overview plan.

Knowing the scale of the topographic survey, it is possible to determine what distance in meters on the ground corresponds to the distance between adjacent crosses on the topographic survey. So for the most commonly used topographic survey scale of 1:500, the distance between the crosses corresponds to 50 meters, for a scale of 1:1000 - 100 meters, 1:2000 - 200 meters, etc. This can be calculated knowing that between crosses on topographic survey 10 cm, and the distance on the ground in one centimeter of topographic survey in meters is obtained by dividing the scale denominator by 100.

It is possible to calculate the scale of topographic survey by crosses (coordinate grid) if the rectangular coordinates of adjacent crosses are specified. To calculate, it is necessary to multiply the difference in coordinates along one of the axes of neighboring crosses by 10. Using the example of the topographic survey below, in this case we will get: (2246600 - 2246550)*10= 500 ---> centimeter 5 meters. It is also possible to calculate the scale, if it is not indicated on the topographic survey, by the known distance on the ground. For example, according to the known length of the fence or the length of one of the sides of the house. To do this, we divide the known length on the ground in meters by the measured distance of this length on the topographic survey in centimeters and multiply by 100. Example: the length of the wall of the house is 9 meters, this distance measured with a ruler on the topographic survey is 1.8 cm. (9 / 1.8) * 100 =500. Topographic survey scale - 1:500. If the distance measured on the topographic survey is 0.9 cm, then the scale is 1:1000 ((9/0.9)*100=1000)

The use of crosses in topographic survey

The size crosses on topographic survey should be 1cm X 1cm. If the crosses do not correspond to these dimensions, then most likely the distance between them is not observed and the scale of the topographic survey is distorted. As already mentioned, by crosses, in the case of topographic surveys in the same coordinate system, it is possible to combine topographic surveys of neighboring territories. Designers use crosses on topographic surveys to bind objects under construction. For example, for the removal of the axes of buildings, the exact distances along the coordinate axes to the nearest cross are indicated, which makes it possible to calculate the future exact location of the projected object on the ground.

Below is a fragment of a topographic survey with the indicated values ​​of rectangular coordinates on the crosses.

Topographic survey scale

The scale is the ratio of linear dimensions. This word came to us from the German language, and is translated as "measuring stick".

What is the scale of a topographic survey

In geodesy and cartography, the term scale is understood as the ratio of the real size of an object to the size of its image on a map or plan. The scale value is written as a fraction with a unit in the numerator, and a number in the denominator indicating how many times the reduction was made.

Using the scale, you can determine which segment on the map will correspond to the distance measured on the ground. For example, moving on a 1:1000 scale map by one centimeter will be equivalent to ten meters traveled on the ground. Conversely, every ten meters of terrain is a centimeter of a map or plan. The larger the scale, the more detailed the map, the more fully it displays the objects of the area plotted on it.

Scale one of the key concepts topographic survey. The variety of scales is explained by the fact that each type of it, focused on solving specific problems, makes it possible to obtain plans of a certain size and generalization. For example, large-scale ground surveys can provide a detailed display of the terrain and objects located on the ground. It is done in the production of land management works, as well as in engineering and geodetic surveys. But it will not be able to show objects in such a large area as small-scale aerial photography.

The choice of scale, first of all, depends on the degree of detail of the map or plan required in each particular case. The larger the scale used, the higher the requirements for the accuracy of measurements. And the performers and specialized enterprises that carry out this survey should have all the more experience.

Scale types

There are 3 types of scale:

Named;

Graphic;

Numerical.

Topographic survey scale 1:1000 used in the design of low-rise construction, in engineering surveys. It is also used to draw up working drawings of various industrial objects.

More small scale 1:2000 suitable, for example, for detailing individual sections of settlements - cities, towns, rural areas. It is also used for projects of fairly large industrial facilities.

to scale 1:5000 draw up cadastral plans, master plans of cities. It is indispensable in the design of railways and highways, laying communication networks. It is taken as the basis for the preparation of small-scale topographic plans. Smaller scales, starting from 1:10000, are used for plans of the largest settlements - cities and towns.

But topographic surveys to scale are in the greatest demand. 1:500 . The range of its use is quite wide: from master plan construction site, to ground and underground utilities. Larger scale work is required only in landscape design, where ratios of 1:50, 1:100, and 1:200 are needed to describe the terrain in detail—isolated trees, shrubs, and other such objects.

For topographic surveys at a scale of 1:500, the average errors of contours and objects should not exceed 0.7 mm, no matter how difficult the nature of the terrain and relief. These requirements are determined by the specifics of the application area, which includes:

engineering communications plans;

drawing up very detailed plans for industrial and household buildings;

improvement of the territory adjacent to the buildings;

laying out gardens and parks;

landscaping of small areas.

Such plans depict not only the relief and vegetation, but also water bodies, geological wells, reference points and other similar structures. One of the main features of this large-scale topographic survey is the drawing of communications, which must be coordinated with the services operating them.

Do-it-yourself topographic survey

Is it possible to do a topographic survey of your own site with your own hands, without involving a specialist in the field of geodesy? How difficult is it to do a topographic survey on your own.

In the event that topographic survey is necessary to obtain any official documents, such as a building permit, granting ownership or lease of a land plot, or obtaining technical conditions for connecting to gas, electricity or other communications, you will not be able to provide do-it-yourself survey. In this case, topographic survey is an official document, the basis for further design, and only specialists who have a license to carry out geodetic and cartographic work or are members of a self-regulatory organization (SRO) corresponding to these types of work have the right to perform it.

Run do-it-yourself surveying without special education and work experience is almost impossible. Topographic survey is a rather technically complex product that requires knowledge in the field of geodesy, cartography and the availability of special expensive equipment. Possible errors in the received topoplan can lead to serious problems. For example, an incorrect determination of the location of a future building due to poor-quality topographic surveys can lead to a violation of fire and building codes and, as a result, to a possible court decision to demolish the building. Topographic survey with blunders can lead to an incorrect location of the fence, violating the rights of the neighbors of your land and, as a result, to its dismantling and significant additional costs for its construction in a new location.

In what cases and how can you do topographic survey with your own hands?

The result of a topographic survey is a detailed plan of the area, which displays the relief and the detailed situation. Special geodetic equipment is used to plot objects and terrain on the plan.
Devices and tools that can be used to perform topographic survey:

theodolite

total station

• high precision geodetic GPS/GLONASS receiver

  3D laser scanner

Theodolite is the cheapest equipment option. The cheapest theodolite costs about 25,000 rubles. The most expensive of these devices is a laser scanner. Its price is measured in millions of rubles. Based on this and the prices for topographic surveys, it makes no sense to purchase your own equipment for doing topographic surveys with your own hands. The only option is to rent the equipment. The cost of renting an electronic total station starts from 1000 rubles. in a day. If you have experience in surveying and working with this equipment, then it makes sense to rent an electronic total station and do the survey yourself. Otherwise, without experience, you will spend quite a lot of time studying complex equipment and work technology, which will lead to significant rental costs that exceed the cost of performing this type of work by an organization with a special license.

For the design of underground utilities on the site, the nature of the relief is important. Incorrect determination of the slope can lead to undesirable consequences when laying sewers. Based on the foregoing, the only possible variant do-it-yourself surveying this is the preparation of a simple plan for a site with existing buildings for simple landscaping. In this case, if the site is on the cadastral register, a cadastral passport with form B6 can help. The exact dimensions, coordinates and angles of rotation of the boundaries of the site are indicated there. The most difficult thing when measuring without special equipment is determining the angles. The available information about the boundaries of the site can be used as the basis for constructing a simple plan of your site. A tape measure can serve as a tool for further measurements. It is desirable that its length be sufficient for measuring the diagonals of the section, otherwise, when measuring the lengths of the lines in several steps, errors will accumulate. Measurements with a tape measure to draw up a site plan can be carried out if there are already established boundaries for your site and they are fixed with boundary marks or coincide with the site fence. In this case, to draw any objects on the plan, several measurements of the lengths of lines from boundary marks or corners of the site are performed. The plan is drawn up electronically or on paper. For the paper version, it is better to use graph paper. The site boundaries are plotted on the plan and used as a basis for further constructions. The distances measured with a tape measure are set aside from the plotted corners of the plot, and at the intersection of the radii of the circles corresponding to the measured distances, the location of the required object is obtained. The plan obtained in this way can be used for simple calculations. For example, calculating the area occupied by a garden, a preliminary calculation of the amount of building materials needed for additional decorative fences or laying garden paths.

Taking into account all the above, we can conclude:

If surveying is required to obtain any official documents (building permit, cadastral registration, town planning plan, planning organization scheme) or designing a residential building, its implementation must be entrusted to an organization that has the appropriate license or is a member of a self-regulatory organization (SRO). In this case, performed do-it-yourself surveying does not have legal force and possible errors in its implementation by a non-professional can lead to disastrous consequences. The only possible option do-it-yourself surveying it is drawing up a simple plan for solving simple problems on a personal site.

Any map has its own special language - special conventional signs. Geography studies all these designations, classifies them, and also develops new symbols to designate certain objects, phenomena and processes. It is useful for absolutely everyone to have a general idea of ​​conventional cartographic signs. Such knowledge is not only interesting in itself, but will certainly be useful to you in real life.

This article is devoted to conventional signs in geography, which are used in the preparation of topographic, contour, thematic maps and large-scale terrain plans.

ABC cards

Just as our speech consists of letters, words and sentences, so any map includes a set of certain designations. With their help, topographers transfer this or that area onto paper. Conventional signs in geography are a system of special graphic symbols used to designate specific objects, their properties and characteristics. This is a kind of "language" of the map, created artificially.

It is rather difficult to say exactly when the very first geographical maps appeared. On all continents of the planet, archaeologists find ancient primitive drawings on stones, bones or wood, created primitive people. So they depicted the area in which they had to live, hunt and defend themselves from enemies.

Modern conventional signs on geography maps display all the most important elements of the terrain: landforms, rivers and lakes, fields and forests, settlements, communication routes, country borders, etc. The larger the image scale, the more objects can be mapped . For example, on a detailed plan of the area, as a rule, all wells and sources of drinking water are marked. At the same time, marking such objects on a map of a region or country would be stupid and impractical.

A bit of history or how the symbols of geographical maps have changed

Geography is a science that is unusually closely related to history. Let's delve into it and we will find out how cartographic images looked many centuries ago.

Thus, the ancient medieval maps were characterized by the artistic rendering of the area with the widespread use of drawings as conventional signs. Geography at that time was just beginning to develop as a scientific discipline, therefore, when compiling cartographic images, the scale and outlines (boundaries) of area objects were often distorted.

On the other hand, all the drawings on the old drawings and portolans were individual and completely understandable. But nowadays you have to connect your memory in order to learn what these or other conventional signs on maps in geography mean.

From about the second half of the 18th century, there was a tendency in European cartography to gradually move from individual perspective drawings to more specific plan symbols. In parallel with this, there was a need for a more accurate display of distances and areas on geographical maps.

Geography: and topographic maps

Topographic maps and terrain plans are distinguished by rather large scales (from 1:100,000 or more). They are most often used in industry, agriculture, exploration, urban planning and tourism. Accordingly, the terrain on such maps should be displayed as detailed and detailed as possible.

For this, a special system of graphic symbols was developed. In geography, it is also often called the "map legend". For ease of reading and ease of remembering, many of these characters resemble the real thing. appearance the objects of the terrain depicted by them (from above or from the side). This system of cartographic symbols is standardized and mandatory for all enterprises that are engaged in the production of large-scale topographic maps.

The topic "Conventional signs" is studied in the school geography course in the 6th grade. To test the level of mastery of a given topic, students are often asked to write a short topographical story. Each of you probably wrote a similar “essay” at school. Offers with conventional signs for geography look something like the photo below:

All symbols in cartography are usually divided into four groups:

• large-scale (areal or contour);
• off-scale;
• linear;
• explanatory.

Let us consider in more detail each of these groups of signs.

Scale signs and their examples

In cartography, scale signs are those that are used to fill in any areal objects. It can be a field, a forest or an orchard. With the help of these conventional signs on the map, you can determine not only the type and location of a particular object, but also its actual size.

The boundaries of areal objects on topographic maps and terrain plans can be depicted as solid lines (black, blue, brown or pink), dotted or simple dotted lines. Examples of scale cartographic signs are shown below in the figure:

off-scale signs

If the terrain object cannot be depicted in real scale plan or map, then in this case off-scale symbols are used. It's about o too small can be, for example, a windmill, a sculptural monument, a rock-outlier, a spring or a well.

The exact location of such an object on the ground is determined by the main point of the symbol. For symmetrical signs, this point is located in the center of the figure, for signs with a wide base - in the middle of the base, and for signs that are based on a right angle - at the top of such an angle.

It is worth noting that the objects expressed on the maps by non-scale conventional signs serve as excellent landmarks on the ground. Examples of off-scale cartographic signs are shown in the figure below:

Linear signs

Sometimes the so-called linear cartographic signs are also distinguished into a separate group. It is easy to guess that with their help linearly extended objects are designated on plans and maps - roads, boundaries of administrative units, railways, fords, etc. An interesting feature of linear designations is that their length always corresponds to the scale of the map, but the width is significantly exaggerated.

Examples of linear cartographic symbols are shown in the figure below.

Explanatory signs

Perhaps the most informative is the group of explanatory conventional signs. With their help, additional characteristics of the depicted terrain objects are indicated. For example, a blue arrow in a riverbed indicates the direction of its flow, and the number of transverse strokes on the designation railway corresponds to the number of paths.

On maps and plans, as a rule, the names of cities, towns, villages, mountain peaks, rivers and other geographical objects are signed. Explanatory symbols can be numeric or alphabetic. Letter designations are most often given in an abbreviated form (for example, a ferry crossing is indicated as an abbreviation "par.").

Symbols for contour and thematic maps

A contour map is a special kind of geographical maps intended for educational purposes. It contains only a coordinate grid and some elements of the geographical basis.

The set of conventional symbols for contour maps in geography is not very wide. The very name of these maps is quite eloquent: only contour notation boundaries of certain objects - countries, regions and areas. Sometimes rivers are also applied to them and big cities(in the form of dots). By and large, contour map- this is a "silent" map, which is just designed to fill its surface with certain conventional signs.

Thematic maps are most often found in atlases of geography. The symbols of such cards are extremely diverse. They can be depicted as a color background, areas or so-called isolines. Diagrams and cartograms are often used. In general, each type of thematic map has its own set of specific symbols.

Topographic signs and symbols of bushes and shrubs

How are the elements of land cover, gardens, plantations, etc., designated?

Let's start with swamps. According to the degree of patency, they are divided into

Passable: swamps through which infantry can move in any direction in summer, both in open and closed formations.

Difficult: swamps through which infantry can move with considerable difficulty and only in open formations.

Impassable: not even one person can pass

Conventional explanatory signs of age and forest species

Conventional signs and cartographic designations of swamps

Conventional signs and cartographic designations of sands and steppes

Conventional signs and cartographic designations of lands, plantations, etc.

Sometimes you may come across a combination of symbols. For example, a wet meadow and swamps where hay is produced are marked with swamp and meadow signs.