Designation of the railway on a topographic map. Topographical symbols and designations of the road network. Classification of conventional signs

LIST OF CONVENTIONAL ABBREVIATIONS USED ON TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS

A
And asphalt, asphalt concrete (road surface material)
auto automobile plant
alb. alabaster plant
eng. hangar
anil. aniline dyeing plant
AO Autonomous Region
apat. apatite developments
ar. aryk (canal or ditch in Central Asia)
art. k. artesian well
arch. archipelago
asb. asbestos factory, quarry, mine
ASSR Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic
astr. astronomical point
asf. asphalt plant
aerd. aerodrome
airp. airport

B
Used cobblestone (road surface material)
b., ball. beam
B., Bol. Big one. -oe, -ie (part of proper name)
bar. barracks
bass. pool
ber. birch (wood species)
Beth. concrete (dam material)
biol. Art. biological station
bl.-p. checkpoint (railway)
bol. swamp
Br paving stones (road surface material)
br. ford
br. could. mass grave
b. tr. transformer booth
bulg. bulgunnyakh (separate hillock of natural formation)
boom. paper industry (factory, mill)
Boer. drilling rig, well
buh. bay

IN
In viscous (river bottom soil) (hydrography)
vag. car repair, car building plant
vdkch. water pump
vdp. waterfall
vdpr. Art. waterworks
vdhr. reservoir
Vel. Great, -aya, -oe, -ie (part of its own name)
vet. veterinary station
wine winery, distillery
railway station railway station
Vlk. volcano
water water tower
High Vyselki (part of its own name)

G
G gravel (road surface material)
woof harbor
gas. gas plant, gas rig, well
gazg. gas holder (large gas tank)
gal. haberdashery industry (plant, factory)
pebble pebbles (mining product)
gar. garage
hydrol. Art. hydrological station
Ch. Chief (part of proper name)
clay clay (mining product)
alumina alumina refinery
hound pottery factory
mountains hot spring
gost. hotel
prokh. mountain pass
dirty mud volcano
Fuel and lubricants (warehouse)
g.-sol. bitter-salty water (in lakes, springs, wells)
gsp. hospital
hydroelectric power plant

D
D wooden (material of bridge, dam)
dv. yard
det. d. orphanage
jute. jute mill
D.O. holiday home
domostr. house-building plant, ancient plant woodworking industry (plant, factory)
ancient ug. charcoal (firing product)
firewood wood warehouse
trembling yeast plant

E
er. erik (narrow deep channel connecting the river bed with a small lake)

AND
Reinforced concrete reinforced concrete (bridge, dam material)
zhel. ferruginous source, place of iron ore mining,
iron processing plant,
yellow-sour iron acid source

Zap. Western, -aya, -oe,-y (part of its own name)
zap. zapan (backwater, river bay)
zap. reserve
falling asleep backfilled well
zat. backwater (a bay on a river used for wintering and ship repairs)
beast. Fur breeding state farm, nursery
Earth earthen (dam material)
earth dugout
mirror mirror factory
grain grain farm
winter wintering, winter quarters
angry gold (mine, deposit)
gold-plate gold-platinum developments

AND
games. toy factory
Izv. lime quarry, lime (firing product)
emer. emerald mines
inst. institute
lawsuit fiber artificial fiber (factory)
ist. source

TO
K rocky (river bottom soil), crushed stone (road surface material), stone (bridge, dam material)
K., K. well
Kaz. barracks
Kam. quarry, stone
stone-fraction stone crushing plant
Kam. stb. stone pillar
Kam. ug. hard coal (mining product)
can. channel
rope. rope factory
kaol. kaolin (mining product), kaolin processing plant
doodle Karakul farming state farm
quarantine quarantine
Couch. rubber plant, rubber plantation
ceramic ceramic factory
kin. cinematographic industry (factory, plant)
brick brickworks
CL clinker (road surface material)
klkh. collective farm
leather tannery
coke. coke plant
combo compound feed plant
compress Art. compressor station
con. horse breeding farm, stud farm
cond. confectionery factory
hemp hemp-growing state farm
cons. canning factory
boiler basin
koch. nomadic
cat shed
Kr., Red. Red, -aya, -oe, -ye (part of its own name
crepe. fortress
croup cereal factory, grain mill
godfather idol
chickens resort

L
lag lagoon
lacquer paint factory
A lion. Left, -aya, -oe, -s (part of proper name)
forest forester's house
forester forestry
lesp. sawmill
years. letnik, summer camp
treat hospital
LZS forest protection station
lim. estuary
foliage larch (forest species)
flax flax processing plant

M
M metal (bridge material)
m. cape
poppy. pasta factory
M., Mal. Small, -aya, -oe, -y (part of its own name)
margar. margarine factory
oil oil mill
oil butter factory
mash. machine-building plant
furniture furniture factory
medpl. copper smelter, plant
copper copper developments
meth metallurgical plant, metal products plant
met.-arr. metalworking plant
meth Art. weather station
fur. fur factory
MZhS machine-livestock station
min. mineral spring
MMS machine reclamation station
could. grave, graves
they say dairy plant
mol.-meat dairy and meat farm
mon. monastery
marble marble (mining product)
MTM machine and tractor workshop
MTF dairy farm
music instr. musical instruments (factory)
torment flour mill
soap soap factory

N
obs. observation tower
fill well filling capacity
national env. national district
invalid inactive
oil oil production, oil refinery, oil storage facility, oil rig
Lower Lower, -yaya, -ee, -ie (part of its own name)
low lowland
Nick. nickel (mining product)
New New, -aya, -oe, -e (part of proper name)

ABOUT
island, islands, islands
oaz. oasis
observ. observatory
ov. ravine
sheep sheep breeding state farm
fireproof refractory products (factory)
lake lake
Oct. Oktyabrsky, -aya, -oe, -ie (part of its own name)
op. greenhouse
ost. stop point (railway)
dept. temporary storage facility state farm department
OTF sheep farm
willing hunting hut

P
P sandy (river bottom soil), arable land
p., village village
memory monument
steam. ferry
parf. perfume and cosmetics factory
pass. apiary
lane pass (mountain), transportation
dog. sand (mining product)
cave cave
beer brewery
Pete. nursery
food conc. food concentrates (plant)
pl. platform (railway)
plastic plastics (factory)
plat. platinum (mined product)
breeding breeding livestock farm
plodvin. fruit-growing state farm
fruit fruit and vegetable farm
fruit-yang fruit and berry state farm
peninsula
burial stagnation border post
burial kmd. border commandant's office
loaded loading and unloading area
pl. fire tower (depot, barn)
polygame printing industry (combine, factory)
floor. Art. field camp
por. threshold, thresholds
village pl. landing pad
fast. dv. inn
pond, strait, passage (under the overpass)
Right Right, -aya, -oe, -s (part of proper name)
Priest. pier
Prov. provinces
wire wire factory
prot. duct
strand spinning mill
PS Village Council
PTF poultry farm
put. n. waypoint

R
glad. radio factory
radio station radio station
once. traveling
development ruins
resolution destroyed
res. rubber products (plant, factory)
rice. rice-growing state farm
R. worker's village
PC District Council (RC - district center)
ore mine
hands sleeve
fish fishing (plant, factory)
fish village fishing village

WITH
rank sanatoriums
cap. barn
sah. sugar factory
sah. cane sugar cane (plantation)
NE North-Eastern
Holy Saint, -aya, -oe, -s (part of its own name)
St. over
beets beet growing state farm
pig pig-breeding state farm
lead lead mine
temporary storage facility state farm
North Northern, -aya, -oe, -y (part of its own name)
sat down Art. breeding station
seed seed-growing state farm
chamois sulfur spring, sulfur mine
NW North-West
strength silo tower
silica silicate industry (plant, factory)
sk. rock, rocks
skip. turpentine plant
skl. stock
slate shale developments
resin tar factory
Sov. Soviet, -aya, -oe, -ie (part of its own name)
soy soybean state farm
Sol. salt water, saltworks, salt mines, mines
sop. hill
variety. Art. Sort Facility
saved. Art. rescue station
speech. match factory
Wed, Wed. Middle, -yaya, -ee, -ie (part of proper name)
SS Selsovet (rural settlement center)
Sr., Star. Old, -an, -oe, -y (part of proper name)
herd stadium
became. Steel Plant
mill. encampment, camp
stb. pillar
glass Glass factory
Art. pumping pumping station
page under construction
page m. building materials factory
STF pig farm
court. ship repair, shipyard
bitches cloth factory
dry dry well
sushi drying room
agricultural agricultural
agricultural mash. agricultural engineering (factory)

T
T hard (river bottom soil)
tab. tobacco-growing state farm, tobacco factory
there. customs
text. textile industry (combine, factory)
ter. waste heap (waste rock dump near mines)
tech. technical College
Comrade Art. freight station
tol. roofing felt plant
peat. peat developments
tract. tractor plant
trick. knitting factory
tun. tunnel
CHP combined heat and power plant

U
ug. brown coal (mining product)
ug.- sour. carbon source
Ukrainian strengthening
ur. tract
uzh. gorge

F
f. fort
fact. trading post (trading settlement)
fan. plywood factory
porcelain porcelain and earthenware factory
fer. farm
fz. fanza
firn. firn field (snow field of grainy snow in high mountain areas)
phosph. phosphate mine
ft. fountain

X
x., hut. farm
hizh. hut
chem. Chemical plant
chemical-pharmaceutical chemical-pharmaceutical plant
bread bread factory
clap cotton-growing state farm, cotton gin plant
cold. fridge
hr. ridge
chromium. chrome mine
crunch. crystal factory

C
C cement concrete (road surface material)
Ts., Tsentr. Central, -aya, -oe, -s (part of its own name)
color. non-ferrous metallurgy (plant)
cem. cement factory
teas tea-growing state farm
tea tea factory
h. met. ferrous metallurgy (factory)
chug iron foundry

Sh
check mine
shiv. shivera (rapids on the rivers of Siberia)
cipher slate factory
school school
Slag slag (road covering material)
Shl. Gateway
sword twine factory
PC. gallery

SCH
Shch crushed stone (road covering material)
slot alkaline spring

E
Elev. elevator
email subst. electrical substation
el.-st. power station
email -tech. electrical plant
ef.-oil essential oil crops state farm, essential oil processing plant

YU
SE South-Eastern
South Southern, -aya, -oe, -e (part of its own name)
SW South-West
legal yurt

I
yag. berry garden

Declassified topographic maps of the General Staff of the USSR are freely circulating on the Internet. We all love to download them, look at them, and often print them on sheets of paper for further use for their intended purpose - i.e. go hiking with them.

Topographic maps of the General Staff are the most accurate and best. Any other purchased maps printed in modern times will not carry as much accuracy and specificity. Conventional signs and symbols on topographic maps of the General Staff are much more complex than any other symbols on maps purchased in a store. We all remember them from geography lessons at school.

As an experienced user of such maps, I would like to describe at the beginning of this article the most important, in my opinion, designations. If the rest are more or less understandable, since they are almost all identical to other types of cards (not the General Staff), then these are something new and still incomprehensible. Actually, I will start with the symbols of rivers, fords, forests and roads.

Rivers and water resources

Speed ​​and direction of river flow (0.6 m/s)
Characteristics of rivers and canals: 30 - Width (m), 0,8 - Depth (m), TO- Soil type ( TO - rocky, P - sand, T - solid, IN - viscous)
Water line mark, shore height above sea level (393m)
Brody: 0,3 - depth, 10 - length, TO- rocky soil, 1,0 - speed (m/sec)
The swamp is passable
The swamp is impassable
Characteristics of bridges: D- construction material ( D - wood, TO - stone, reinforced concrete - reinforced concrete), 43 - length of the bridge, 4 - width of the roadway (m), 10 - load capacity in tons

Forest clearing and width in meters (2m)
Field and forest roads
Winter road, a functioning road only in the winter season, during the cold period. Can go through swamps.
Dirt road, 6 - width of the roadway in meters
Gat - a road with a wooden surface, a flooring made of logs, 3 - width of the roadway
Go away
Railway track
Gas pipeline
Power lines (PTL)
Dismantled railway
Single track railway, narrow gauge. Also railway bridge
Highway: 6 —width of the covered part, 8 — the width of the entire road from ditch to ditch in meters; SCH- coating material ( B - cobblestone, G - gravel, TO - crushed stone, Shl - slag, SCH - crushed stone)

Relief

Steep river banks, rocky outcrops, Parma
Relief contours with relative height designation (260 m)
Mountainous area without vegetation, covered with kurum stones and rock outcrops
Mountainous area with vegetation cover and sparse trees, the forest border is visible
Outlier rocks with a height in meters
Glaciers
Rocks and rocky cliffs
Elevation mark (479.2 m)
Steppe region. Near the edge of the forest
Sands, deserts

Photos of some geographical objects

The main winter road laid through the taiga forest. In summer there are thickets here (Yakutia)

Forest dirt road (Ivdel district, Northern Urals)

Gat - road with wooden covering (Lobnensky forest park, Moscow region)

Rock outcrop, Parma (Stone "Giant", Middle Urals)

Remnant rocks (Old Stone rock, Middle Urals)

It should be understood that all available topographic maps of the USSR General Staff have long been outdated. The information contained on them can date back to the 70-80s of the last century. If you are interested in the details of walking along certain trails, roads, the presence of settlements and geographical objects, then you should check in advance the reliability of the information from other sources. There may no longer be any paths or roads at all. Small settlements can be abandoned and look like wastelands, often already overgrown with young growth.

But, in any case, the maps of the General Staff still provide more accurate information, and using them you can more productively calculate your route and distance. In this article, I did not bother your heads with unnecessary symbols and symbols of topographic maps. I have posted only the most important and significant for the mountain-taiga and steppe region. Those interested in details can take a look.

Maps of the USSR General Staff were made using the Soviet system of layout and nomenclature of topographic maps. This system is still used in the Russian Federation and in some former Soviet republics. There are newer maps, the state of the terrain on which is approximately 60-80s of the last century, and older maps, the so-called General Staff of the Red Army, made by geodetic reconnaissance of the pre-war period. “The maps are compiled in a conformal transverse cylindrical Gauss-Kruger projection, calculated using the parameters of the Krasovsky ellipsoid for a six-degree zone,” - and if you don’t understand, it doesn’t matter! The main thing is to remember (or write down, save this article) the points that I cited above. Knowing them, you can skillfully use maps and plan your route without using GPS.

Topic 8. CARTOGRAPHICAL SYMBOLS

8.1. CLASSIFICATION OF CONVENTIONAL SIGNS

On maps and plans, the image of terrain objects (situations) is presented in cartographic symbols. Cartographic symbols - a system of symbolic graphic notations used to depict various objects and phenomena, their qualitative and quantitative characteristics on maps. Symbols are sometimes also called "map legend".
For ease of reading and memorization, many symbols have outlines that resemble the top or side view of the local objects they depict. For example, symbols for factories, oil rigs, isolated trees, and bridges are similar in shape to the appearance of the listed local objects.
Cartographic symbols are usually divided into scale (contour), non-scale and explanatory (Fig. 8.1). In some textbooks, linear symbols are classified as a separate group.

Rice. 8.1. Types of symbols

Large-scale (contour) signs are conventional signs used to fill the areas of objects expressed on the scale of a plan or map. From a plan or map, using such a sign, you can determine not only the location of the object, but its size and outline.
The boundaries of area objects on the plan can be depicted with solid lines of different colors: black (buildings and structures, fences, roads, etc.), blue (reservoirs, rivers, lakes), brown (natural landforms), light pink (streets and areas in populated areas), etc. The dotted line is used for the boundaries of agricultural and natural land in the area, the boundaries of embankments and excavations near roads. The boundaries of clearings, tunnels and some structures are indicated by a simple dotted line. The fill characters inside the outline are arranged in a specific order.
Linear symbols(a type of large-scale symbols) are used when depicting objects of a linear nature - roads, power lines, borders, etc. The location and planned outline of the axis of a linear object are depicted accurately on the map, but their width is significantly exaggerated. For example, a highway symbol on maps at a scale of 1:100,000 exaggerates its width by 8 to 10 times.
If an object on a plan (map) cannot be expressed by a scale symbol due to its smallness, then off-scale symbol, for example, a boundary sign, a separately growing tree, a kilometer pole, etc. The exact position of an object on the ground is shown main point off-scale symbol. The main point is:

• for signs of symmetrical shape - in the center of the figure (Fig. 8.2);
• for signs with a wide base - in the middle of the base (Fig. 8.3);
• for signs that have a base in the form of a right angle, at the apex of the angle (Fig. 8.4);
• for signs that are a combination of several figures, in the center of the lower figure (Fig. 8.5).

Rice. 8.2. Symmetrical signs
1 - points of the geodetic network; 2 - points of the survey network, fixed on the ground by centers; 3 - astronomical points; 4 - churches; 5 - plants, factories and mills without pipes; 6 - power plants; 7 - water mills and sawmills; 8 - fuel warehouses and gas tanks; 9 - active mines and adits; 10 - oil and gas wells without derricks

Rice. 8.3. Wide base signs
1 - factory and factory pipes; 2 - waste heaps; 3 - telegraph and radiotelegraph offices and departments, telephone exchanges; 4 - meteorological stations; 5 - semaphores and traffic lights; 6 - monuments, monuments, mass graves, tours and stone pillars more than 1 m high; 7 - Buddhist monasteries; 8 - separately lying stones

Rice. 8.4. Signs with a base in the form of a right angle
1 - wind engines; 2 - gas stations and gas stations; 3 - windmills; 4 - permanent river signaling signs;
5 - free-standing deciduous trees; 6 - free-standing coniferous trees

Rice. 8.5. Signs that are a combination of several figures
1 - plants, factories and mills with pipes; 2 - transformer booths; 3 - radio stations and television centers; 4 - oil and gas rigs; 5 - tower-type structures; 6 - chapels; 7 - mosques; 8 - radio masts and television masts; 9 - kilns for burning lime and charcoal; 10 - mazars, suborgans (religious buildings)

Objects expressed by off-scale symbols serve as good landmarks on the ground.
Explanatory symbols (Fig. 8.6, 8.7) are used in combination with large-scale and non-scale; they serve to further characterize local items and their varieties. For example, an image of a coniferous or deciduous tree in combination with a conventional forest sign shows the dominant tree species in it, an arrow on a river indicates the direction of its flow, and transverse strokes on a railway symbol indicate the number of tracks.

Rice. 8.6. Explanatory symbols of a bridge, highway, river

Rice. 8.7. Characteristics of forest stands
In the numerator of the fraction - the average height of trees in meters, in the denominator - the average thickness of trunks, to the right of the fraction - the average distance between trees

The maps contain signatures of the proper names of settlements, rivers, lakes, mountains, forests and other objects, as well as explanatory signatures in the form of alphabetic and numerical designations. They allow us to obtain additional information about the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of local objects and relief. Lettered explanatory signatures are most often given in abbreviated form according to the established list of conventional abbreviations.
For a more visual representation of the terrain on maps, each group of symbols related to the same type of terrain elements (vegetation cover, hydrography, relief, etc.) is printed with paint of a certain color.

8.2. CONVENTIONAL SIGNS OF LOCAL OBJECTS

Settlements on topographic maps of scales 1:25,000 - 1:100,000 show everything (Fig. 8.8). Next to the image of the settlement, its name is signed: cities - in capital letters of a straight font, and a rural settlement - in lowercase letters of a smaller font. Under the name of a rural settlement, the number of houses is indicated (if known), and if they have district and village councils, their abbreviated signature (PC, CC).
The names of city and holiday villages are printed on maps in capital letters of italic font. When depicting settlements on maps, their external outlines and the nature of the layout are preserved, main and through passages, industrial enterprises, outstanding buildings and other buildings that have landmark significance are identified.
Wide streets and squares, depicted on the map scale, are shown with large-scale symbols in accordance with their actual size and configuration, other streets - with conventional out-of-scale symbols, main (main) streets are highlighted on the map with a wider clearance.

Rice. 8.8. Settlements

Populated areas are depicted in most detail on maps at scales of 1:25,000 and 1:50,000. Blocks with predominant fire-resistant and non-fire-resistant buildings are painted over in the appropriate color. As a rule, all buildings located on the outskirts of populated areas are shown.
The map at a scale of 1: 100,000 basically preserves the image of all main streets, industrial facilities and the most important objects that are landmarks. Individual buildings within blocks are shown only in settlements with very sparse buildings, for example, in dacha-type settlements.
When depicting all other settlements, buildings are combined into blocks and filled with black paint; the fire resistance of buildings on the 1:100,000 map is not highlighted.
Selected local items significant landmarks are plotted on the map most accurately. Such local objects include various towers and towers, mines and adits, wind turbines, churches and separate buildings, radio masts, monuments, individual trees, mounds, rock outcrops, etc. All of them, as a rule, are depicted on maps conventional out-of-scale signs, and some are accompanied by abbreviated explanatory captions. For example, signature check yy. with the sign of a mine means that the mine is coal.

Rice. 8.9. Selected local items

Road network on topographic maps it is depicted in full and detail. Railways are shown on maps and divided according to the number of tracks (single-, double- and triple-track), gauge (normal and narrow-gauge) and condition (operating, under construction and dismantled). Electrified railways are distinguished by special symbols. The number of tracks is indicated by dashes perpendicular to the axis of the conventional road sign: three dashes - three-track, two - double-track, one - single-track.
On railways they show stations, sidings, platforms, depots, track posts and booths, embankments, excavations, bridges, tunnels, semaphores and other structures. The proper names of the station (passages, platforms) are signed next to their symbols. If the station is located in or near a populated area and has the same name as it, then its signature is not given, but the name of this populated area is emphasized. The black rectangle inside the station symbol indicates the location of the station relative to the tracks: if the rectangle is located in the middle, then the tracks run on both sides of the station.

Rice. 8.10. Railway stations and structures

Symbols for platforms, checkpoints, booths and tunnels are accompanied by corresponding abbreviated captions ( pl., bl. p., B, tun.). Next to the symbol of the tunnel, in addition, its numerical characteristic is placed in the form of a fraction, the numerator of which indicates the height and width, and the denominator - the length of the tunnel in meters.
Road And ground roads When depicted on maps, they are divided into paved and unpaved roads. Paved roads include freeways, improved highways, highways, and improved unpaved roads. Topographic maps show all paved roads in the area. The width and surface material of motorways and highways are indicated directly on their symbols. For example, on the highway the signature 8(12)A means: 8 - width of the covered part of the road in meters; 12 - width of the road from ditch to ditch; A- coating material (asphalt). On improved dirt roads, usually only a label is given for the width of the road from ditch to ditch. Freeways, improved highways, and highways are highlighted in orange on maps, improved dirt roads - yellow or orange.

Figure 8.11. Highways and dirt roads

Topographic maps show unpaved dirt (country) roads, field and forest roads, caravan routes, trails and winter roads. If there is a dense network of roads of a higher class, some secondary roads (field, forest, dirt) on maps of scales 1:200,000, 1:100,000, and sometimes 1:50,000 may not be shown.
Sections of dirt roads passing through wetlands, lined with bundles of brushwood (fascines) on wooden beds and then covered with a layer of earth or sand, are called fascines sections of roads. If on such sections of roads, instead of fascines, a flooring of logs (poles) or simply an embankment of earth (stones) is made, then they are called, respectively, ruts and rows. Fascinous sections of roads, roads and boats are indicated on maps by dashes perpendicular to the conventional road sign.
On highways and dirt roads they show bridges, pipes, embankments, excavations, tree plantings, kilometer posts and passes (in mountainous areas).
Bridges depicted on maps with symbols of different designs depending on the material (metal, reinforced concrete, stone and wood); In this case, two-tier bridges, as well as drawbridges and drawbridges, are distinguished. Bridges on floating supports are distinguished by a special symbol. Next to the symbols of bridges with a length of 3 m or more, and located on roads (except for highways and improved highways), their numerical characteristics are signed in the form of a fraction, the numerator of which indicates the length and width of the bridge in meters, and the denominator - the load capacity in tons Before the fraction, indicate the material from which the bridge is built, as well as the height of the bridge above the water level in meters (on navigable rivers). For example, the signature next to the bridge symbol (Fig. 8.12) means that the bridge is made of stone (material of construction), the numerator is the length and width of the roadway in meters, the denominator is the load capacity in tons.

Rice. 8.12. Overpass over the railway

When designating bridges on highways and improved highways, only their length and width are given. Characteristics of bridges less than 3 m long are not given.

8.3. HYDROGRAPHY (WATER BODIES)

Topographic maps show the coastal part of the seas, lakes, rivers, canals (ditches), streams, wells, springs, ponds and other bodies of water. Their names are written next to them. The larger the map scale, the more detailed water bodies are depicted.
Lakes, ponds and other bodies of water shown on maps if their area is 1 mm2 or more on the map scale. Smaller bodies of water are shown only in arid and desert areas, as well as in cases where they serve as reliable landmarks.

Rice. 8.13. Hydrography

Rivers, streams, canals and main ditches Topographic maps show everything. It has been established that on maps of scales 1:25,000 and 1:50,000, rivers up to 5 m wide, and on maps of scale 1:100,000 - up to 10 m are indicated by one line, wider rivers - by two lines. Channels and ditches with a width of 3 m or more are depicted by two lines, and those less than 3 m wide - by one.
Width and depth of rivers (channels) in meters is written as a fraction: the numerator is the width, the denominator is the depth and nature of the bottom soil. Such signatures are placed in several places along the river (canal).
River flow speed (m/s), depicted by two lines, point in the middle of the arrow showing the direction of the flow. On rivers and lakes, the height of the water level during low-water periods in relation to sea level is also indicated (water edge marks).
Shown on rivers and canals dams, gateways, ferries (transportation), fords and give the corresponding characteristics.
Wells denoted by blue circles next to which a letter is placed TO or signature art. To. (artesian well).
Ground water pipelines are shown by solid blue lines with dots (every 8 mm), and underground ones by broken lines.
To make it easier to find and select water supply sources on the map in steppe and desert areas, the main wells are marked with a larger symbol. In addition, if there is data, an explanatory signature of the ground level mark is given to the left of the symbol of the well, and to the right - the depth of the well in meters and the filling rate in liters per hour.

8.4. SOIL AND VEGETATION COVER

Soil -vegetable cover are usually depicted on maps with large-scale symbols. These include conventional signs for forests, shrubs, gardens, parks, meadows, swamps and salt marshes, as well as conventional signs depicting the nature of the soil cover: sand, rocky surface, pebbles, etc. When designating soil and vegetation cover, a combination of conventional symbols is often used signs. For example, in order to show a swampy meadow with bushes, the area occupied by the meadow is marked with a contour, inside which the symbols of swamp, meadow and bushes are placed.
The contours of areas covered with forests and shrubs, as well as the contours of swamps and meadows, are indicated on maps by dotted lines. If the boundary of a forest, garden or other land is a linear local object (ditch, fence, road), then in this case the symbol of a linear local object replaces the dotted line.
Forest, bushes. The area of ​​the forest inside the contour is painted over with green paint. The tree species is shown with the symbol deciduous, coniferous, or a combination of both when the forest is mixed. If there is data on the height, thickness of trees and density of the forest, its characteristics are indicated with explanatory captions and numbers. For example, the caption indicates that coniferous trees (pine) predominate in this forest, their average height is 25 m, the average thickness is 30 cm, the average distance between tree trunks is 4 m. When depicting clearings on a map, their width is indicated in meters.

Rice. 8.14. Forests

Rice. 8.15. Shrubs

Rice. 8.16. Swamps

The depth of impassable and impassable swamps is written next to the vertical arrow indicating the location of the measurement. Difficult and impassable swamps are shown on maps with the same symbol.
Salt marshes on maps they are shown with vertical blue shading, dividing them into passable (intermittent shading) and impassable (solid shading).

On topographic maps, as their scale becomes smaller, homogeneous topographic symbols are combined into groups, the latter into one generalized symbol, etc. In general, the system of these symbols can be represented in the form of a truncated pyramid, at the base of which there are signs for topographic plans at a scale of 1:500, and at the top - for survey topographic maps at a scale of 1:1,000,000.

8.5. COLORS OF TOPOGRAPHICAL SIGNS

Colors topographic symbols are the same for maps of all scales. Line marks of lands and their contours, buildings, structures, local objects, strong points and boundaries are printed upon publication black color, relief elements - brown; reservoirs, watercourses, swamps and glaciers - blue(mirror of water - light blue); area of ​​trees and shrubs - green(dwarf forests, dwarf trees, shrubs, vineyards - light green), neighborhoods with fire-resistant buildings and highways - orange, neighborhoods with non-fire-resistant buildings and improved dirt roads - yellow.
Along with topographic symbols for topographic maps, conventional abbreviations of proper names political and administrative units (for example, Lugansk region - Lug.) and explanatory terms (for example, power plant - el.-st., southwestern - SW, working village - r.p.).

8.6. CARTOGRAPHIC FONT USED ON TOPOGRAPHIC PLANS AND MAPS

A font is a graphic design of letters and numbers. The fonts used on topographic maps and maps are called cartographic.

Depending on a number of graphic features, cartographic fonts are divided into groups:
- according to the inclination of the letters - straight (ordinary) and italic with inclinations to the right and left;
- according to the width of the letters - narrow, normal and wide;
- according to lightness - light, semi-bold and bold;
- by the presence of hooks.

On topographic maps and plans, two types of basic fonts are mainly used: topographic and outline italics (Fig. 8.17).

Rice. 8.17. Core fonts and cursive writing of numbers

Topographic (hair) font T-132 is used for signing rural settlements. It is drawn with a line thickness of 0.1-0.15 mm, all elements of the letters are thin hairlines.
Blank italics is used in the design of topographic maps, agricultural maps, land management maps, etc. On topographic maps, explanatory captions and characteristics are written in italics: astronomical points, ruins, plants, factories, stations, etc. The design of the letters has a pronounced oval shape . The thickness of all elements is the same: 0.1 - 0.2 mm.
Computing font or cursive writing of numbers, belongs to the group of cursive fonts. It was designed for recording in field journals and calculation sheets, since in geodesy many processes of field and office work were associated with recording the results of instrumental measurements and their mathematical processing (see Fig. 8.17).
Modern computer technologies provide a wide, almost unlimited selection of fonts of different types, sizes, designs and slants.

8.7. INSTRUCTIONS ON TOPOGRAPHICAL PLANS AND MAPS

In addition to conventional signs, topographic plans and maps contain various inscriptions. They constitute an important element of content, explain the objects depicted, indicate their qualitative and quantitative characteristics, and serve to obtain reference information.

According to their meaning, the inscriptions are:

• proper names of geographical objects (cities, rivers, lakes
  and etc.);
• part of a symbol (vegetable garden, arable land);
• conventional signs and proper names at the same time (signatures of names of cities, hydrographic objects, relief);
• explanatory captions (lake, mountain, etc.);
• explanatory text (convey information about the distinctive features of objects, specify their nature and purpose) (Fig. 8.18).

The inscriptions on the cards are made in various fonts with different letter patterns. Maps can use up to 15 different fonts. The letter design of each font has elements unique to that font, which is based on knowledge of the features of various fonts.
For groups of related objects, certain fonts are used. For example, roman fonts are used for the names of cities, italic fonts are used for the names of hydrographic objects, etc. Each inscription on the map should be clearly readable.
There are distinctive features in the arrangement of the inscriptions of proper names. The names of settlements are located on the right side of the outline parallel to the north or south side of the map frame. This position is most desirable, but not always feasible. The names should not cover the images of other objects and should not be placed within the map frame, so it is necessary to place the names to the left, above and below the outline of the settlement.

Rice. 8.18. Examples of inscriptions on maps

The names of area objects are placed inside the contours so that the label is evenly distributed over the entire area of ​​the object. The name of the river is placed parallel to its bed. Depending on the width of the river, the inscription is placed inside or outside the contour. It is customary to sign large rivers several times: at their sources, at characteristic bends, at the confluence of rivers, etc. When one river flows into another, the name inscriptions are placed so that there is no doubt about the name of the rivers. Before the merger, the main river and its tributary are signed; after the merger, the name of the main river is required.
When placing inscriptions that are not horizontal, special attention is paid to their readability. The following rule is followed: if the elongated contour along which the inscription should be placed is located from northwest to southeast, then the inscription is placed from top to bottom, if the contour stretches from north-east to southwest, then the inscription is placed from bottom to top.
The names of seas and large lakes are placed inside the contours of the basins along a smooth curve, in the direction of their length and symmetrically to the shores. Inscriptions of small lakes are placed like inscriptions of settlements.
The names of mountains are placed, if possible, to the right of the top of the mountains and parallel to the southern or northern frame. The names of mountain ranges, sand formations and deserts are labeled in the direction of their extent.
Explanatory inscriptions are placed parallel to the north side of the frame.
Numerical characteristics are arranged depending on the nature of the information they convey. The number of houses in rural settlements, the heights of the earth's surface and the water's edge are signed parallel to the north or south side of the frame. The speed of the river flow, the width of the roads and their covering material are located along the axis of the object.
Labels should be placed in the least crowded places on the cartographic image so that there is no doubt about which object they refer to. Inscriptions should not cross river confluences, characteristic relief details, or images of objects that have landmark values.

Basic rules for constructing cartographic fonts: http://www.topogis.ru/oppks.html

Questions and tasks for self-control

1. What are symbols?
2. What types of symbols do you know?
3. What objects are depicted on maps with large-scale symbols?
4. What objects are depicted on maps using out-of-scale symbols?
5. What is the purpose of the main point of an out-of-scale symbol?
6. Where is the main point located on the off-scale symbol?
7. For what purposes are color schemes used on cards?
8. For what purposes are explanatory captions and digital symbols used on maps?

Tourism and recreation

Both a plan and a map are ways of depicting an area that make it possible to cover it as a whole and determine the relative location of its parts. Neither a verbal description of the area, nor drawings, nor photographs can give as accurate an idea of ​​the area as a whole as a plan or map.

The word “map” has been known since ancient times and translated from Latin means drawing; it is usually applied to the concept of a drawing depicting the earth's surface. Over time, the content of the term “map” was clarified, and now we call a map a reduced, generalized image on the plane of the earth's surface or its parts.According to the content of the card there are:

People have long been looking for the simplest, fastest and most efficient ways to transport themselves and their goods from one place to another. Railroads provided people with a new option for transporting large loads over long distances at faster speeds.

Students can better understand the impact and uses of the railroad by comparing the advantages and disadvantages of rail transportation to other forms available at the time. Ask them to take on the role of a distributor who wants to ship their products from one location to another. Ask students to answer the following questions for the cards in the collection based on the date and region indicated in the scenario.

1. General geographical, which usually do not divide into two groups: then
graphical and overview - differing in degree
details and scale.

Topographic map is a large-scale general geographic map that reflects the elements of the natural and cultural landscape of the area in the greatest detail.

What modes of transportation are available between the places your goods need to travel to? If the goal is for the product to arrive as quickly as possible, which transportation option will you choose? Does the size, quantity or type of product you are shipping dictate that one shipping method is better than another?

• What routes do these modes of transport take?
• What are the advantages and disadvantages of each mode of transport?

Overview - general geographic maps of a smaller scale with less detail, serving for general orientation.

2. Special, the subject of which is not the general characteristics of the territory, but some element of the geographical landscape (climate, soil, etc.). There may also be educational, maritime, tourist and other special maps. In recent years, sports maps, which belong to the category of special-purpose maps and are intended for orienteering competitions, have become widespread.

Historical analysis and interpretation

Students can learn to analyze and interpret maps to determine how land subsidies affect railroads. In turn, the railroads were required to transport goods for the government at preferential rates. To see examples of how these land grants shape the landscape, students can search the land grant collection and look for examples of land given to railroads. How did these land grants influence railroad development patterns? And how did the railroad affect urbanization?

The amount (degree) of reduction of the area on the map is called scale.

The scale of each map is most often expressed as a fraction, in which the numerator always contains one, and the denominator is a number that shows how many times the image of the area on this map is reduced (1:100, 1:10000).

In addition to the numerical scale, the scale can have other types - verbal (natural) and linear (graphic).

Look for evidence of settlement along train routes. The following text will appear at the bottom of the map:. Explanations The complete township contains 36 sections, each containing 640 acres, more or less numbered as above. Even the correct or divided parts belong to the government. The surveyed villages are indicated as follows.

Historical release-analysis and decision making

When railroad companies needed to decide where to build new rail lines, many issues were analyzed. Students can read from a special presentation and then list the geographic, economic, political, and social factors that influenced the route selection for the first transcontinental railroad. Additionally, they may discuss the various goals that people sought to achieve with the help of the transcontinental railroad. Judas inspired his co-investors with promises of wealth and glory.

The map has many names printed in ordinary words, there are numbers, lines and many icons of different colors, sizes and shapes. This topographical symbols,which indicate local objects on the map.

All topographical symbols can be divided into four types:

1. linear - these are roads, communication lines, power lines, streams, rivers, etc. That is, these are signs of such local objects that themselves have the form of long lines;
2. curly - these are signs of towers, bridges, churches, ferries, power plants, individual buildings, etc.;
3. areal - these are signs of forests, swamps, settlements, arable lands, meadows - that is, local objects that occupy significant areas of the earth's surface. Area signs consist of two elements: an outline and a sign that fills the outline;
4. explanatory - these are signs describing the forest, the names of settlements, railway stations, rivers, lakes, mountains, etc., this is the width of the highway, the length, width and load-carrying capacity of bridges, the depth of fords on rivers, and the like.

Almost all linear and figured signs are non-scale, and area signs, as a rule, exactly correspond to the true sizes of local objects. It is easier to study and remember signs by getting to know them in groups, which are formed according to the type of local objects:

Historical Research Opportunities

Studying the best route, the government appointed Secretary of War Jefferson Davis to study possible routes to the Pacific, in which a Secretary of War was selected for the task? What goals could he have in mind? The study of railroad maps provides students with the opportunity to consider the importance of preserving the historical record and researching the creation and use of railroad maps. Ask students about maps and train schedules they may have used in their lives. Do they still have these items?

group No. 1 - roads and road structures;

group No. 2 - settlements, buildings;

group No. 3 - hydraulic network (that is, water on the ground);

group No. 4 - vegetation;

group No. 5 - relief;

group no. 6 - explanatory and special tourist signs.

Group No. 1. Roads and road structures

This group includes eleven most important topographical signs.

If students use public transportation in their daily lives, ask what they do with their old maps when routes are changed and revised maps are printed. Most students will throw these cards away. From this perspective, students can discuss why the cards in this collection were preserved and presented here. For example, in New York you can find maps of the city's train system.

Are these cards really "more important" than the cards we use today? Were they more important to their users than railway maps are to those who use them today? Students will likely conclude that, among other things, the number of cards created by factors contributes to the value of each card of that type. To understand when printed materials became less valuable, students can research printing methods to see when mass production of cards became more efficient. When did people start traveling by train?

All roads can be divided into three main types: railways for train traffic, highways and unpaved roads.

Highway are called roads that have a hard artificial surface - stone (cobblestones, paving stones), asphalt or concrete. The highway sign is out-of-scale. Each highway sign on the map has an additional sign - an alphanumeric characteristic consisting of three elements: a number, another number in brackets and a letter. The first number indicates the width of the highway surface in meters (that is, the asphalt, concreted or stone-covered part of the highway), and in brackets is a figure indicating the width of the entire highway surface in meters,

How do these meanings relate to the card meanings? For more information about the history of railroad mapping techniques, students can read the special presentation. Maps can be used as starting points and illustrations for biographies and book reports. They can also be used in combination with literature and songs in exercises where the combination of these media enhances the meaning to be gained from each.

To aid in understanding railroad history, students can research and write a biography of an important contributor to railroads and railroad maps. They can browse the collection to find the maps they need and then explore the cartographer. They can also read the special presentation to find the names of other figures in railway history.

Rice. 31. Highway

Rice. 32. Simple dirt road

Rice. 33. Country road

that is, together with the roadsides. The letter designates the material with which the highway is covered: if it is asphalt, then the letter “A” is placed, if concrete is the letter “B”, and if the highway is covered with cobblestones or paving stones (that is, stone), then the letter “K” (Fig. 31) . The next type of roads is unpaved, earthen roads without artificial surface. All dirt roads are divided into three types: simple dirt roads (they are also called field or forest roads) (Fig. 32), country roads (Fig. 33) and the so-called improved dirt roads (abbreviated as UGD) (Fig. 34). An improved dirt road is also an earthen road, but it has a slightly convex shape for better water flow, ditches along the sides and a gravel or crushed stone fill compacted with a roller.

Their reports should include how individuals contributed to the development of railroads. They may also include information about the state of rail transport during that individual's lifetime. The images of the man they chose to study may be included in other American memory collections. through collections of prints and photographs on an individual's name to extract images.

In addition to this collection's maps of American Memory travelogues, teachers can create activities where the simultaneous use of textual and visual data adds to everyone's understanding. In the north the map is limited by the settlement of Tegel and Tegeler See, in the southeast by Spree and Köpenick, and in the southwest the city of Potsdam is represented. Along the railway there are historical settlements - Novales, Teltow, Seelendorf. The orange color represents the great route that His Majesty first asked. The color yellow represents the second sediment that the Emperor laid down.

• Steglitz and Schoenberg.
• This card is dedicated to the cheerful traveler.

Rice. 34. Improved dirt road

Rice. 37. Bridge

On highways and some other major roads, kilometer posts are placed, which are also indicated on topographic maps. On old topographic maps, the kilometer post sign was depicted as a figure in the form of a small square on a leg (Fig. 35a), now it is depicted with a simple short stroke (Fig. 356).

If you're new here, you'll probably want to read my guide to buying hiking shoes and my bucket list: Click here to download the guides for free! Thank you for visiting and see you soon! 😉. It's easy to get lost in the city, and there are signs everywhere. Hiking is the same thing, but worse. It's not that the route is marked, that it's impossible to get lost. Many can testify.

Knowing the signage and knowing how to read the signs you encounter while hiking is the basis for good orientation and not getting lost. Are you sure you can tell the difference between them, and do you know where to find them? And this is not enough to be able to recognize the markings so as not to get lost.

Fig.35. Markings of kilometer posts on highways

Nobody specially lays the paths; they arise naturally from the constant walking of people.

Marking of main routes

Pedestrian route markings are a signaling system that allows departure routes to be followed before arrival. There are hundreds more. Walking routes, country hikes and short treks are supported by voluntary markers of the French Tourism Federation. The markings are relatively consistent on French territory - this is not the case for many other routes.

These are routes with a maximum duration of one day. . In Switzerland these can be either horizontal white-red-white or yellow diamonds. In Luxembourg and Italy they are rectangles or yellow circles. The cross can sometimes indicate the path to what is next, and sometimes a path that should not be followed.

Rice. 36. Railway

Railways Previously they were depicted by two thin black parallel lines, the gap between which was filled alternately with black and white checkers (Fig. 36a). Now the sign is a solid thick black line. Two short strokes across a railway sign indicate that it has two tracks. If there is only one track, then one stroke is added. If the transverse stroke has another short stroke parallel to the railway sign, this means that the road is electrified (Fig. 366).

Different types of markup

Now you know whether you need to follow the little red circle or the yellow diamond, but where to find them? Marking is done in different ways depending on the rough terrain. Sometimes markers have a lot of imagination, so so should they. There are signs on some hikes. They can be at the beginning or in the middle of the route. In the middle they most often indicate the direction you are following and where you are.

These are the most common markings. These are mounds of stones that are erected by hikers to indicate the path to the next one or the top of a peak. They are very useful, as can be seen from afar. They are mainly used where there is no traceable path and in places where marking is difficult. This often happens in rocks. Attention, some funny sometimes fun to build cairns anywhere. Don't blindly trust them.

At the railway station sign, a black rectangle inside a white rectangle is placed on the side of the railway where the station building (station building) is located.

Bridges. On simple dirt roads, as a rule, wooden bridges are built; on highways, improved dirt roads and on important country roads, bridges are most often made of concrete (stone). On railways, large bridges over large rivers are always metal, and over small rivers - concrete. Topographic signs of bridges are shaped and non-scale signs. Where a bridge sign is placed on the map, the road and river signs are broken (Fig. 37). de

revo (if the bridge is concrete, the letter is written

Rice. 38. Pedestrian bridge

Bridges are often also made on hiking trails, but very small ones - only for pedestrians. Such bridges (residents often call them either treasures or lavas) are sometimes simply two logs laid over a river from bank to bank. The topographic sign for the pedestrian bridge is very simple (Fig. 38).

Very often the roads are crossed by small dry ravines and hollows through which streams flow only in the spring, when the snow melts. When building a road, an embankment is made across a ravine, under which a concrete pipe is laid to drain water. Such pipes have their own topographic sign (Fig. 39).

Railways on maps and plans are depicted with their division according to the number and width of tracks into three-track, double-track, single-track and narrow-gauge, as well as by condition: operating, under construction and dismantled. In addition, electrified, overhead, horse-drawn railways and tram lines are highlighted.

On railways, all roadside structures are designated - stations, sidings, booths, etc. The only exceptions are communication lines located in the road right-of-way and kilometer posts, which are not shown on maps.
Next to railway buildings, explanatory abbreviated captions are always given (B. - booth, kaz. - barracks, station - station, freight station - freight station, platform - platform, raz. - siding, etc.).

Conventional topographic signs of railway stations take into account their division into three classes. The greater the station's capacity (development of tracks, number of directions served), the higher the class of the station. The 1st class station symbol has two blackened rectangles, the 2nd class has one. Stations of the 3rd class are depicted in the same way as stations of the 2nd, but with a smaller sign. The black rectangles of the station symbol are placed on the side of the road on which the main station building is located; if it is located among the paths, then the rectangle is placed in the middle of the symbol. The proper name of the station is signed on the map next to its explanatory caption - art.; for example: Art. Klimashevka. The name of the station is not signed if it is located in the settlement of the same name or nearby. In the latter case, the name of the locality, which is common with the name of the station, is emphasized with a thin line. Embankments and excavations are sometimes labeled with their height or depth in meters.

Topographic signs and symbols of railways and railway structures

Horse-drawn roads on maps are divided into the following types:

Topographical signs and symbols of horse-drawn roads

On highways and improved dirt roads, descents and ascents steeper than 10 degrees are indicated.

On auto-drawn roads, embankments, excavations, tunnels, ruts, rows, fins, bridges, kilometer posts, road signs, communication lines and passes (in mountainous areas) are also indicated.

On highways and improved dirt roads, the width of the roadway is indicated with numbers along the axis of the road. On highways, the width of the covered part of the road and the width of the entire road - from ditch to ditch - are indicated. The second signature is placed to the right of the first in brackets, for example 10 (14).

The numbers at the kilometer posts on highways show mileage. Signatures on the conventional cartographic signs of bridges on highways and improved dirt roads give the length of the bridge in meters (numerator) and its load capacity in tons (denominator).

The length of bridges with a length of more than 1.5 mm on the map is always shown to scale, while less significant ones are plotted outside the scale, and their length therefore cannot be measured on the map. If there are two lines in front of a bridge sign on highways and improved dirt roads, perpendicular to the axis of the road, this means that the bridge is two or more cars wide. In populated areas, only large bridges are painted.

A topographic map is a graphical representation of the area. This document contains accurate information about the terrain, objects and objects located on it. A topographic map is a reduced-size, universal image of the earth's surface.

Classification of topographic maps

Topographic maps are divided into various types according to the following criteria: scale, special information content, purpose of use. Various maps of the area are also classified according to scientific areas.

Types of topographic maps:

1. Geographical.
2. Topographical.
3. Geological.
4. Historical.
5. Political.
6. Soil.

Scales of topographic maps

When compiling maps of an area, depending on the tasks at hand, it is necessary to use different scales. Scale is a mathematical relationship between the length of the segment between certain points shown on the map and the actual distance between these points located on a specific area.

Using scales, you can determine the factor of reduction in length on the plan in relation to the corresponding size on the ground. For example, a scale of 1: 10,000 means that all distances between points on the ground are reduced by 10,000 times. Or 1 cm on the map is equal to 100 meters on the ground.

The number in the denominator affects the degree of downscaling. A smaller scale (small scale map) has a larger value in the denominator. For example, small-scale survey topographic maps have values ​​such as 1: 1,000,000 or 1: 500,000, etc. Large-scale documents contain more detailed information about the depicted area. You can see more details here.

Data on the numerical value of the scale is located at the very bottom of the image (behind the southern frame of the document). The notation is in the form of a fraction. The numerator always contains one. The denominator indicates the number by how many times the image was reduced.

The scale value is how many real kilometers physically fit in one centimeter on the plan.

Conventional topographical symbols

Objects and objects located on the ground are depicted on a topographic document in the form of symbols. To correctly read the information depicted, you need to familiarize yourself with and study the basic alphabet of the document - its symbols. Without this, it is impossible to study the area using a topographical drawing.

Conventional topographic signs are divided into the following categories:

• large-scale conventional topographic signs;
• off-scale symbols;
• explanatory.

Using scale symbols, a description and image of local objects and objects is given, which can be shown in the drawing in the form of occupied areas and outlines on the scale of a plan or map. This is how rivers, lakes, swamps, mountains, forests, large buildings, bridges, railways and roads, and populated areas are designated.

Out-of-scale symbols denote objects that occupy small areas and cannot be depicted to scale: wells, radio masts, factory pipes, poles, individual buildings, etc.

With the help of explanatory topographic signs, additional information is provided that characterizes the features of objects or objects located in a given area in combination with large-scale and non-scale signs: directions of river flow, indication of the type of forest plantings, etc.

In addition to graphic signs, topography uses various inscriptions for explanation, the purpose and purpose of the object is clarified, for example, school. - school. Numerical values ​​and proper names are also used to indicate specific settlements, rivers, roads, and the characteristics of their parameters (width, height, etc.).

For each area there is a specific system of symbols, with their help the following are indicated: relief, hydrography, road network and junctions, local objects, boundaries, features of soil and vegetation. Conventional signs help to create a visual image of the actual state of the area under study.

The purpose of topographic maps is to represent a section of a specific area in a three-dimensional three-dimensional image. Using the so-called contour lines, the terrain is depicted. These are lines connecting equal heights above sea level. The starting point is the zero of the Kronstadt water gauge - the average level of the Baltic Sea.

If a separate relief cannot be shown using contour lines, they are depicted in the form of special symbols: cliffs, gullies, pits, mounds, ravines, rocks, etc.

Measuring distances on a map

Measurements on the map are made using a measuring compass. The compass needles are applied to the end points of the segments on the plan. And then the resulting compass solution is laid out on a regular ruler, where the length of each segment is determined. If the lines are larger than the linear scale, the measurement is carried out in several steps.

The distances between points on the drawing along curved lines are measured step by step using small compass solutions. On average, the step length is 0.5 - 1.0 cm.

Long, winding lines are measured with a special device called a curvimeter. It consists of a wheel and a pointer combined with a dial. The wheel moves along a specific line on the plan, the arrow indicates the distance traveled. The division value on the dial scale is equal to one kilometer or centimeter. The resulting readings in cm are multiplied by the scale value of this plan.

Before the start of the journey, the arrow is set to zero. If the readings of the device decrease when rolling the wheel, it is necessary to rotate the curvimeter 180°.

If you don’t have a graduated ruler or curvimeter at hand, you can use a strip of paper or graph paper.

Orientation using a map

When orienting using a map, the point of standing is first determined and the map is compared with the surrounding area. The document is placed in such a position that its directions coincide with a specific area. In this case, the south is at the bottom, the north is at the top, the east and west are on the right and left, respectively. Orientation of the map is done approximately by eye or using a special ruler or compass.

Determining the standing point

To determine the standing point, landmarks are used based on the following characteristics:

1. Local items.
2. Characteristic details and relief forms.
3. Notches left when passing distances.

The standing point is determined by nearby landmarks after the map is oriented to the cardinal points and identified on the ground, as well as on the plan of nearby objects or relief elements. Taking into account the scale and approximate distance to the identified objects, a standing point is marked on the document.