Interpretation of sleep armor in dream books. Armament of a knight in the Middle Ages Knight dressed in armor

Armored soldier - enmity, open confrontation.

Dreaming of "Knight's armor" in a dream

Trying on knightly armor in a dream - a high position awaits you. How to improve the value of sleep? Imagine that the armor sits on you like a glove. You are comfortable in them.

Dream Interpretation: why Armor is dreaming

To dream of beautiful, new, shiny armor sparkling brightly in the sun is a warning that in the near future you need to avoid various conflicts and quarrels, because they can turn into big troubles for you, which will be eliminated later ...

Armor - interpretation in the dream book

Is there someone or something that you are trying to protect yourself from? Are you in a situation where you feel insecure and therefore should wear armor? Wearing armor means shutting yourself off from the world. Are you able to find an alternative to overcome fear, ...

Armor - see in a dream

The need to take the path of the Warrior of Light is also an opportunity. A reminder that wisdom is best armor. Reflection of the desire to defend, fence off. Reflection of the desire for wisdom, also the ability to use it.

Interpretation of sleep Knight's armor

A high position awaits you.

Armor in a dream

Knightly - expects a high position.

Dream Interpretation: why Armor is dreaming

To be in military armor - to an honorary position. To lose military armor is to great losses.

Knight's armor in a dream

Expects a high position.

How to interpret the dream "Military uniforms"

Seeing military armor, guns, shields in a dream means that soon you will need protection from enemies. If in a dream you yourself are the first to use weapons, then family strife awaits you.

Dream Interpretation: what the Weapon is dreaming of

To conflicts in your environment. If this is a pistol, then the quarrel will be small. Hold a weapon in your hands - discord will flare up because of you. They shoot at you - you will have a hard time going through a quarrel. Seeing yourself wearing armor means that you feel ...

Dream of a Knight

A dream about him portends an unusual incident that will bring you much joy. Sometimes such a dream portends that your merits will be appreciated. A dead knight in a dream is a harbinger of failure, shame, desecration, disrespect. Knightly armor in a dream is a sign that ...

Dream about military uniforms

Seeing military armor, guns, shields in a dream means that soon you will need protection from enemies. If in a dream you yourself are the first to use weapons, then family strife awaits you. Weapons, shoot, ammo.

Dream Interpretation: what is dressed for in a dream

To be dressed, perhaps in a uniform or even armor. Inability to undress. Danger of expressly conforming to the views of others instead of developing an independent character.

The Knight is dreaming - interpretation in the dream book

A dream about an old knight in armor predicts: a) a test of spiritual qualities. B) betrayal, revenge and envy from others. C) honor and joy. D) protection and patronage. If a woman sees her husband in knightly attire, she will receive a serious confirmation of his fidelity. …

Dream Interpretation: what clothes are dreaming of

The person of an individual is his behavior, position and role of his thoughts and desires, often real facts. Clothing also serves as protection against unwanted touch. Being dressed in a uniform or even in armor, the inability to undress is the danger of expressly conforming to the views of other people ...

Decoding and interpretation of sleep Knight

A dream about an old knight in armor - predicts a test of spiritual qualities - betrayal, revenge and envy on the part of others, honor and joy, protection and patronage. If a woman sees her husband in knightly attire, she will receive serious confirmation of his fidelity. If unmarried...

German armor of the 16th century for a knight and a horse

The field of weapons and armor is surrounded by romantic legends, monstrous myths, and widespread misconceptions. Their sources are often a lack of knowledge and experience with real things and their history. Most of these notions are absurd and based on nothing.

Perhaps one of the most infamous examples would be the notion that "knights had to be put on horseback with a crane", which is as absurd as it is a common belief, even among historians. In other cases, some technical details that defy obvious description have become the object of passionate and fantastic in their ingenuity attempts to explain their purpose. Among them, the first place, apparently, is occupied by the stop for the spear, protruding from the right side of the breastplate.

The following text will attempt to correct the most popular misconceptions and answer questions frequently asked during museum tours.

1. Only knights wore armor.

Armor for a knight's duel, late 16th century

Secondly, it is wrong to believe that every noble person was a knight. Knights were not born, knights were created by other knights, feudal lords or sometimes priests. And under certain conditions, people of non-noble origin could be knighted (although knights were often considered the lowest rank of nobility). Sometimes mercenaries or civilians who fought as ordinary soldiers could be knighted due to a display of extreme bravery and courage, and later knighthood became possible to purchase for money.

In other words, the ability to wear armor and fight in armor was not the prerogative of the knights. Mercenary foot soldiers, or groups of soldiers made up of peasants, or burghers (city dwellers) also took part in armed conflicts and accordingly protected themselves with armor of varying quality and size. Indeed, burghers (of a certain age and above a certain income or wealth) in most cities of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance were obliged - often by law and decree - to buy and keep their own weapons and armor. Usually it was not full armor, but at least it included a helmet, body protection in the form of chain mail, fabric armor or a breastplate, as well as weapons - a spear, pike, bow or crossbow.

Indian chain mail of the 17th century

In wartime, this people's militia was obliged to defend the city or perform military duties for feudal lords or allied cities. During the 15th century, when some wealthy and influential cities began to become more independent and presumptuous, even the burghers organized their own tournaments, on which they, of course, wore armor.

In this regard, not every piece of armor has ever been worn by a knight, and not every person depicted in armor will be a knight. A man in armor would be more correctly called a soldier or a man in armor.

2. Women in the old days never wore armor or fought in battles.

3 Armor Was So Expensive Only Princes And Rich Nobles Could Afford It

Indeed, with the exception of looting armor on the battlefield or winning a tournament, acquiring armor was a very expensive undertaking. However, since there are differences in the quality of the armor, there must have been differences in its value. Armor of low and medium quality, available to burghers, mercenaries and the lower nobility, could be bought ready-made in markets, fairs and city shops. On the other hand, there were high-class armor made to order in imperial or royal workshops and from famous German and Italian gunsmiths.

Although examples of the value of armor, weapons, and equipment in some of the historical periods have come down to us, it is very difficult to translate the historical value into modern equivalents. It is clear, however, that the cost of armor ranged from inexpensive, low-quality or obsolete, second-hand items available to citizens and mercenaries, to the cost of a full armor of an English knight, which in 1374 was estimated at £16. It was an analogue of the cost of 5-8 years of renting a merchant's house in London, or three years of the salary of an experienced worker, and the price of a helmet alone (with a visor, and probably with an aventail) was more than the price of a cow.

At the upper end of the scale, examples can be found such as a large set of armor (a basic set that, with the help of additional items and plates, could be adapted for various uses, both on the battlefield and in the tournament), ordered in 1546 by the German king (later - emperor) for his son. For the fulfillment of this order, for a year of work, the court gunsmith Jörg Seusenhofer from Innsbruck received an incredible amount of 1200 gold moments, equivalent to twelve annual salaries of a senior court official.

4. The armor is extremely heavy and severely limits the wearer's mobility.

A full set of combat armor typically weighs between 20 and 25 kg and a helmet between 2 and 4 kg. That's less than a full firefighter's outfit with oxygen equipment, or what modern soldiers have had to wear in combat since the nineteenth century. Moreover, while modern equipment usually hangs from the shoulders or waist, the weight of well-fitted armor is distributed throughout the body. It wasn't until the 17th century that the weight of battle armor was greatly increased to make it bulletproof, due to the increased accuracy of firearms. At the same time, full armor became less and less common, and only important parts of the body: the head, torso and arms were protected by metal plates.

The opinion that wearing armor (formed by 1420-30) greatly reduced the mobility of a warrior is not true. Armor equipment was made from separate elements for each limb. Each element consisted of metal plates and plates connected by movable rivets and leather straps, which made it possible to perform any movement without restrictions imposed by the rigidity of the material. The common notion that a man in armor could barely move, and if he fell to the ground, could not get up, has no basis. On the contrary, historical sources tell about the famous French knight Jean II le Mengre, nicknamed Boucicault (1366-1421), who, being dressed in full armor, could, grabbing the steps of a ladder from below, on its reverse side, climb it with the help of some hands Moreover, there are several illustrations from the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, in which soldiers, squires or knights, in full armor, mount horses without assistance or any equipment, without ladders and cranes. Modern experiments with real armor of the 15th and 16th centuries and with their exact copies have shown that even an untrained person in properly selected armor can climb and dismount from a horse, sit or lie down, and then get up from the ground, run and move limbs freely and without inconvenience.

In some exceptional cases, the armor was very heavy or held the person wearing it in almost the same position, for example, in some types of tournaments. Tournament armor was made for special occasions and worn for a limited time. A man in armor then mounted a horse with the help of a squire or a small ladder, and the last elements of armor could be put on him after he settled in the saddle.

5. Knights had to be saddled with cranes

As stated above, most of the armor was light and flexible enough not to restrict the wearer. Most people in armor should have been able to put one foot in the stirrup and saddle a horse without assistance. A stool or the help of a squire would hasten this process. But the crane was absolutely not needed.

6. How did the people in the armor go to the toilet?

7. The military salute came from the gesture of raising the visor

While these theories sound intriguing and romantic, there is little evidence that the military salute originated from them. As far as Roman customs are concerned, it would be practically impossible to prove that they lasted fifteen centuries (or were restored during the Renaissance) and led to the modern military salute. There is also no direct confirmation of the visor theory, although it is more recent. Most military helmets after 1600 were no longer equipped with visors, and after 1700 helmets were rarely worn on European battlefields.

One way or another, the military records of 17th-century England reflect that "the formal act of greeting was the removal of the headdress." By 1745, the English regiment of the Coldstream Guards seems to have perfected this procedure, rewriting it as "laying the hand to the head and bowing at the meeting."

This practice was adopted by other English regiments, and then it could spread to America (during the Revolutionary War) and continental Europe (during Napoleonic Wars). So the truth may lie somewhere in the middle, in which the military salute originated from a gesture of respect and courtesy, in parallel with the civilian habit of lifting or touching the brim of the hat, perhaps with a combination of the warrior custom of showing the unarmed right hand.

8. Chain mail - "chain mail" or "mail"?

German chain mail of the 15th century

A protective garment consisting of intertwined rings should properly be called "mail" or "mail armor" in English. The commonly accepted term "chain mail" is modern pleonasm (a linguistic error meaning using more words than is necessary to describe). In our case, "chain" (chain) and "mail" describe an object consisting of a sequence of intertwined rings. That is, the term “chain mail” simply repeats the same thing twice.

As with other misconceptions, the roots of this error must be sought in the 19th century. When those who started studying armor looked at medieval paintings, they noticed what seemed to them to be many different types of armor: rings, chains, ring bracelets, scaly armor, small plates, etc. As a result, all ancient armor was called “mail”, distinguishing it only in appearance, from which the terms “ring-mail”, “chain-mail”, “banded mail”, “scale-mail”, “plate-mail” appeared. Today, it is generally accepted that most of these different images were just different attempts by artists to correctly depict the surface of a type of armor that is difficult to capture in a painting and in sculpture. Instead of depicting individual rings, these details were stylized with dots, strokes, squiggles, circles, and more, which led to errors.

9. How long did it take to make a full armor?

In the case of German gunsmiths, most workshops were controlled by strict guild rules that limited the number of apprentices, and thus controlled the number of items that one craftsman and his workshop could produce. In Italy, on the other hand, there were no such restrictions, and workshops could grow, which improved the speed of creation and the quantity of production.

In any case, it is worth bearing in mind that the production of armor and weapons flourished during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Armourers, makers of blades, pistols, bows, crossbows, and arrows were present in any large city. As now, their market was dependent on supply and demand, and efficient operation was a key parameter of success. The common myth that simple chain mail took years to make is nonsense (but it's undeniable that chain mail was very labor intensive to make).

The answer to this question is simple and elusive at the same time. The time it took to make the armor depended on several factors, such as the customer, who was tasked with making the order (the number of people in production and the workshop being busy with other orders), and the quality of the armor. Two famous examples will serve as an illustration.

In 1473 Martin Rondel, possibly an Italian armourer, working in Bruges, who called himself "armourer of my bastard lord of Burgundy", wrote to his English client, Sir John Paston. The gunsmith informed Sir John that he could fulfill the request for the manufacture of armor, as soon as the English knight informed him what parts of the suit he needed, in what form, and the date by which the armor should be completed (unfortunately, the gunsmith did not indicate the possible dates ). In the court workshops, the production of armor for the highest persons, apparently, took more time. For the court armourer, Jörg Seusenhofer (with a small number of assistants), the manufacture of armor for the horse and large armor for the king took, apparently, more than a year. The order was placed in November 1546 by King (later Emperor) Ferdinand I (1503-1564) for himself and his son, and was completed in November 1547. We do not know if Seusenhofer and his workshop were working on other orders at this time.

10. Armor details - spear support and codpiece

The support for the spear appeared soon after the appearance of a solid chest plate at the end of the 14th century and existed until the armor itself began to disappear. Contrary to the literal meaning of the English term "lance rest" (spear stand), its main purpose was not to bear the weight of the spear. In fact, it was used for two purposes, which are better described by the French term "arrêt de cuirasse" (spear restraint). She allowed the mounted warrior to hold the spear firmly under the right hand, limiting it from slipping back. This allowed the spear to be stabilized and balanced, which improved aim. In addition, the combined weight and speed of the horse and rider was transferred to the point of the spear, which made this weapon very formidable. If the target was hit, the spear rest also acted as a shock absorber, preventing the spear from "shooting" backwards, and distributing the blow to the chest plate across the entire upper torso, not just the right arm, wrist, elbow, and shoulder. It is worth noting that on most combat armor, the support for the spear could be folded up so as not to interfere with the mobility of the hand holding the sword after the warrior got rid of the spear.

The history of the armored codpiece is closely connected with its brother in a civilian male suit. From the middle of the XIV century, the upper part of men's clothing began to be shortened so much that it ceased to cover the crotch. In those days, pants had not yet been invented, and men wore leggings fastened to their underwear or belt, and the crotch was hidden behind a hollow attached to the inside of the top edge of each of the legs of the leggings. At the beginning of the 16th century, this floor began to be stuffed and visually enlarged. And the codpiece remained a detail of the men's suit until the end of the 16th century. On armor, the codpiece as a separate plate protecting the genitals appeared in the second decade of the 16th century, and remained relevant until the 1570s. She had a thick lining inside and joined the armor in the center of the lower edge of the shirt. The early varieties were bowl-shaped, but due to the influence of civil costume, it gradually changed into an upward shape. It was not usually used when riding a horse, because, firstly, it would interfere, and secondly, the armored front of the combat saddle provided sufficient protection for the crotch. Therefore, the codpiece was commonly used for armor designed for foot combat, both in war and in tournaments, and despite some value as a defense, it was no less used because of fashion.

11. Did the Vikings wear horns on their helmets?

One of the most enduring and popular images of a medieval warrior is that of a Viking, which can be instantly recognized by a helmet equipped with a pair of horns. However, there is very little evidence that the Vikings ever used horns to decorate their helmets at all.

The earliest example of the decoration of a helmet with a pair of stylized horns is a small group of helmets that have come down to us from the Celtic Bronze Age, found in Scandinavia and in the territory of modern France, Germany and Austria. These decorations were made of bronze and could take the form of two horns or a flat triangular profile. These helmets date from the 12th or 11th century BC. Two thousand years later, from 1250, pairs of horns gained popularity in Europe and remained one of the most commonly used heraldic symbols on helmets for battle and tournaments in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. It is easy to see that these two periods do not coincide with what is usually associated with the Scandinavian raids that took place from the end of the 8th to the end of the 11th centuries.

Viking helmets were usually conical or hemispherical, sometimes made from a single piece of metal, sometimes from segments held together by strips (Spangenhelm).

Many of these helmets were equipped with face protection. The latter could take the form of a metal bar covering the nose, or a front sheet consisting of protection for the nose and two eyes, as well as the upper part of the cheekbones, or protection of the entire face and neck in the form of chain mail.

12. Armor was no longer needed due to the advent of firearms.

Finally, it is worth noting that the armor has not completely disappeared. The ubiquitous use of helmets by modern soldiers and police proves that armor, although it has changed materials and perhaps lost some of its importance, is still a necessary piece of military equipment around the world. In addition, torso protection continued to exist in the form of experimental chest plates during the American Civil War, gunnery pilot plates in World War II, and modern bulletproof vests.

13. The size of the armor suggests that in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, people were smaller.

However, when drawing such general conclusions based on armor, there are many factors to consider. Firstly, is it a complete and uniform armor, that is, did all the parts go with each other, thereby giving the correct impression of its original owner? Secondly, even high-quality armor made to order for a particular person can give an approximate idea of ​​\u200b\u200bhis height, with an error of up to 2-5 cm, since the overlap of the protections of the lower abdomen (shirt and thigh guards) and hips (leg guards) can only be estimated approximately.

Armor came in all shapes and sizes, including armor for children and youths (as opposed to adults), and there was even armor for dwarfs and giants (often found in European courts as "curiosities"). In addition, other factors must be taken into account, such as the difference in average height between northern and southern Europeans, or simply the fact that there have always been unusually tall or unusually short people when compared with average contemporaries.

Notable exceptions include kings, such as Francis I, King of France (1515-47), or Henry VIII, King of England (1509-47). The height of the latter was 180 cm, as evidenced by contemporaries, and which can be verified thanks to half a dozen of his armor that have come down to us.

Armor of the German Duke Johann Wilhelm, 16th century

Armor of Emperor Ferdinand I, XVI century

Visitors to the Metropolitan Museum can compare German armor dating from 1530 to the battle armor of Emperor Ferdinand I (1503-1564) dating from 1555. Both armors are incomplete and the measurements of their wearers are only approximate, but still the difference in size is striking. The growth of the owner of the first armor was, apparently, about 193 cm, and the girth of the chest was 137 cm, while the growth of Emperor Ferdinand did not exceed 170 cm.

14. Men's clothing is wrapped from left to right, because armor was originally closed this way.

The theory is compelling, but there is not enough evidence that modern clothing has been directly affected by such armor. Also, while the armor protection theory may be true for the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, some examples of helmets and body armor wrap the other way.

Misconceptions and questions about cutting weapons

Dagger, 16th century

As with armor, not everyone who carried a sword was a knight. But the idea that the sword is the prerogative of the knights is not so far from the truth. Customs or even the right to carry a sword varied according to time, place and laws.

In medieval Europe, swords were the main weapon of knights and horsemen. In peacetime, only persons of noble birth had the right to carry swords in public places. Since in most places swords were perceived as "weapons of war" (as opposed to the same daggers), peasants and burghers who did not belong to the warrior class of medieval society could not wear swords. An exception to the rule was made for travelers (citizens, merchants and pilgrims) because of the dangers of traveling by land and sea. Within the walls of most medieval cities, the carrying of swords was forbidden to everyone - sometimes even noble ones - at least in times of peace. The standard rules of trade, often found on churches or town halls, often also included examples of the permitted lengths of daggers or swords that could be carried freely within city walls.

Without a doubt, it was these rules that gave rise to the idea that the sword is the exclusive symbol of the warrior and knight. But due to social changes and new fighting techniques that appeared in the 15th and 16th centuries, it became possible and acceptable for citizens and knights to carry lighter and thinner descendants of swords - swords, as a daily weapon for self-defense in public places. And until the beginning of the 19th century, swords and small swords became an indispensable attribute of the clothes of a European gentleman.

It is widely believed that the swords of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance were simple tools of brute force, very heavy, and as a result, not tractable for the "ordinary person", that is, a very ineffective weapon. The reasons for these accusations are easy to understand. Due to the rarity of surviving specimens, few people held a real medieval or Renaissance sword in their hands. Most of these swords were obtained in excavations. Their rusty appearance today can easily give the impression of rudeness - like a burned-out car that has lost all signs of its former grandeur and complexity.

Most of the real swords of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance say otherwise. A one-handed sword usually weighed 1-2 kg, and even a large two-handed "war sword" of the 14th-16th centuries rarely weighed more than 4.5 kg. The weight of the blade was balanced by the weight of the hilt, and the swords were light, complex, and sometimes very beautifully decorated. Documents and paintings show that such a sword in experienced hands could be used with terrible efficiency, from cutting off limbs to penetrating armor.

Turkish saber with scabbard, 18th century

Swords and some daggers, both European and Asian, and weapons from the Islamic world, often have one or more grooves on the blade. Misconceptions about their purpose have led to the emergence of the term "bloodstream". It is claimed that these grooves speed up the flow of blood from the opponent's wound, thus increasing the effect of injury, or that they make it easier to remove the blade from the wound, allowing the weapon to be easily drawn without twisting. While such theories are entertaining, the purpose of this groove, called a fuller, is simply to lighten the blade, reduce its mass without weakening the blade or compromising flexibility.

On some European blades, in particular swords, rapiers and daggers, as well as on some fighting poles, these grooves have a complex shape and perforation. The same perforation is present on cutting weapons from India and the Middle East. Based on scant documentary evidence, it is believed that this perforation must have contained poison in order for the impact to be guaranteed to result in the death of the opponent. This misconception led to the fact that weapons with such perforations began to be called "assassin weapons".

Although there are references to Indian weapons with a poisoned blade, and such rare cases may have occurred in Renaissance Europe, the true purpose of this perforation is not at all sensational. Firstly, perforation led to the disposal of part of the material and lightened the blade. Secondly, it was often made in the form of exquisite and complex patterns, and served both as a demonstration of the blacksmith's skill and decoration. For proof, it is only necessary to point out that most of these perforations are usually located near the handle (hilt) of the weapon, and not on the other side, as would be the case with poison.

The study of medieval armor is not only a look at their appearance, but also an insight into the mood, horror and grandeur of a bygone era. Yes, the armor provided the knight with protection, but it also reveals what those times were filled with, as well as the importance of the person who wore them, not to mention the fact that the armor will let us know, and maybe tell us about the era, so rich in legends, saturated with the spirit of historicism.

A little over five hundred years ago, a knight from the noble and ancient Franconian Schott family owned magnificent armor made by one of the famous Nuremberg gunsmiths. This knight, whose name was Kunz Schott von Hellingen, died in 1526, but his armor is still preserved and looks like new. All the details have been preserved, there is not a single dent or notch, and the shine of the metal has also been preserved. In a word, this armor is a wonderful example of the work of a gunsmith.

The armor was made between 1490 and 1497, when Schott and forty other knights jointly owned a large castle in Rothenburg. Forty-one knights made up a small professional army, which participated in the endless internecine wars of the South German barons for pay, offering services to any of them for certain fee. In total, there were about five hundred well-trained, battle-hardened soldiers in the castle. This castle still stands near the city of Nuremberg.

In 1497, Schott was elected commander of this army and commandant of the fortress of Rothenburg. One of his first independent actions was the war with Nuremberg in response, as Schott himself said, to the unbearable hostility that the city council showed towards the Rotenburg knights. Thanks to this war, we can, with an accuracy of one or two years, establish the date when exactly the armor was made. It took a very long time to make armor of this type, the owner had to often come to the gunsmith to adjust his military attire. If Schott had stuck his nose into Nuremberg after the war broke out in 1497, he would have immediately lost his nose along with his head, even assuming that there would be such a gunsmith who would agree to make armor for a man at war with his hometown . So we can safely assume that the armor was made before this war began at the end of the 15th century. Based on the style and style of the armor, it can be concluded that they could not be made before 1490. We also know that the armor was made in Nuremberg, since on the inside of the cuirass is the mark of the Nuremberg Armourers' Guild - a Gothic letter framed by a chain of pearls or dots (see Fig. 1a). In addition, Schott's armor is distinguished by some features that are characteristic of the work of the Nuremberg masters.

Today we see this armor highly polished, but when Schott wore it, it was probably dyed black or dark purple. On the top of the breastplate of the cuirass was engraved his coat of arms, which in those days had a bright color, but since then it has worn off and disappeared. Undoubtedly, the bright coat of arms and plume were in sharp contrast to the dark trim of the armor. The heraldic shield of the coat of arms was divided into four fields, which were staggered in silver and red, or, in heraldic terms, it was a four-field shield with scarlet and silver. (Schott's armor is in the magnificent private collection of Mr. R. T. Gwynn of Epsom.)

Schott's career as a commander of a free squad turned out to be extremely successful. Shortly after his election, he sent a letter of formal challenge to one of the powerful German princes, the Imperial Electors, who Schott claimed in the letter held Hornburg Castle, Schott's own hereditary property. We do not know what came of this venture, but Schott probably felt confident enough to dare to challenge such a powerful magnate to battle. During Schott's first raids on the Nurembergers, one of the members of the city council, Wilhelm Döring, had the misfortune to fall into the hands of Schott. Schott took Dering to Rothenburg, where the poor man's right hand was cut off. Afterwards, Dering was sent home with a rude letter from Schott to the city council. For this villainy, Emperor Maximilian I outlawed Schott, which, however, did not bother the latter at all. One of the powerful barons, Margrave Friedrich von Bayreuth, supported Schott, and he continued his former activities. Of course, all this time, Schott and his squad offered their services for a fee to any baron who needed it. When money speaks, mercenaries listen. When there were no customers willing to pay money, Schott and his people began to rob at their own peril and risk.

A few years later, Schott entered the service of the Margrave Casimir of Brandenburg and became commandant of the small town and fortress of Streitburg. Here, Schott developed such a violent activity that the Swabian barons sent a note to the margrave, in which they wrote that if he did not take Schott away, they would devastate his possessions. Casimir, the story goes, secretly beheaded Schott at Kadolzberg in 1523.

Since supporters of Nuremberg adhered to this interpretation of the death of Schott, this story must be taken on faith with some reservations. Some evidence suggests that he was still alive in 1525 and died a natural death at Streitburg in 1526. We can safely conclude that the story of Schott's execution - although dramatic and entertaining - is not true. There are grains of truth in this story regarding how Schott was perceived in some circles. An execution ending is a stretch for the gullible. But whatever Schott was, he was undoubtedly a man of his time - cruel, belligerent and unscrupulous in his means. At the same time, he was also a brave, courageous military leader, a fully accomplished knight.

Drawing 1 can give some idea of ​​the shape and appearance of Schott's armor, but no drawing can justly do justice to the skill of the gunsmith and the shape of the armor, which in reality casts a dark steel sheen, unusually lively and at the same time awesome. Looking at them more closely, you get a sense of their greatness, so it is very difficult to believe that this armor is no longer the warrior who so often wore it in battle - in defense and in the offensive.

Schott's armor is not the only one made by order of famous historical figures and preserved to this day. True, many of the armor that you see today in museums or in private collections are prefabricated - they are made up of parts and pieces. The gaiter and greaves are from some, the bracers are from others, the cuirass is from still others, and the helmet, pulled down on top, belongs to a different era altogether. In addition, in such armor, there are probably a lot of details made already in our days, but still, in such attire there is brilliance and magic, which we expect from their contemplation. Probably, because of the bewitching splendor and romantic legends that were formed about them, a false impression arose, due to which a lot of nonsense was written about the armor; therefore, we will deal with some misunderstandings right now.

Rice. one. Armor of Kunz Schott von Hellingen. Made in Nuremberg between 1490 and 1497.

Rice. 1a. Emblem of the Nuremberg Gunsmiths Guild.

To begin with, I must say that in those days when armor was a familiar item, they were used every day and no one called them a “plate suit”. They were called simply armor or armor, and more often "harness"; indeed, the expression "to die in a harness" did not mean that a person died harnessed like a horse to a cart, death in armor is meant. The expression "plate suit" was not used at all until 1600.

In addition, you can often read the phrase "chain mail". This expression, denoting a protective covering made of small, interconnected iron rings, has passed into everyday language, although it is fundamentally incorrect. What they mean is simply called "mail", a flexible armor consisting of interconnected rings. The Celts used chain mail as early as the 5th century BC. e.; just like the Romans, who called her macula, that is, a lattice or network.

The northern peoples, the Vikings and their ancestors, very often used expressions containing the word "net" to refer to chain mail. These people often used poetic allegorical turns: “his battle net, woven by the skill of a blacksmith”, “their solid nets, connected by hands, sparkled brightly”, “brilliant breast net”, “spear net”. No one has ever used the word "chain" to refer to chain mail, always only "net". If you take a closer look at the chain mail, you will immediately understand why. In English, chain mail is called "mail". The word came from French, in which this item of protective weapons was called the word "mailles", that is, a modified Latin word "macula".

The most serious mistake regarding armor concerns its weight. Knights were never hoisted into their saddles by winches; the relative weight and composition of the armor was well known and deeply studied, but this idiocy wanders from book to book and film to film. Carefully carried out more than thirty years ago, research on this issue can dispel all doubts from those who prefer accuracy in everything. In the tests I mentioned, the people of the Middle Ages wore real armor, not aluminum or tin stage props. The most accurate of these tests were funded by the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, where they were filmed. The frames of these shootings prove that a person in full armor could run, jump, lie down on his stomach and back and get up without assistance, jump on a horse and jump off it. Naturally, a person - even a trained one - soon got tired if he had to move for a very long time in this way. Of course, our ancestors learned to wield weapons and wear armor from a very early age, but no one expected them to constantly walk or run in iron armor. Full plate vestments were used only in the cavalry, when the main weight of the armor was carried by the horse, which served as a source of energy and driving force. But even under this condition, a real warrior had to independently saddle from the ground, without resorting to stirrups, in full combat attire. King Edward I of England was a renowned master of this craft (it is said that he was a great fan of mounting a horse from the ground without assistance); his more famous successor, Henry V, was famous for the same.

Most of the English armor, made before 1550 and presented in the collections of even major national museums, is prefabricated, although some have survived to this day in full form and are not inferior in quality to Schott's vestments. For example, the armor of Henry VIII, both the copy from the Tower of London and from Windsor Castle, are brilliant examples of armor that has survived in its entirety to this day. The armor of Windsor Castle stands on the landing, and as you climb the stairs to it, you can easily imagine yourself standing and perhaps trembling before the most regal of English kings (Fig. 2). The Tower of London also contains several pieces of armor made in the royal workshops in Greenwich for famous aristocrats of the era of Elizabeth I, but in fact all these armor are of later origin and are not truly medieval. In search of fully preserved armor, which was a battle dress, and not part of the court costume, we should go to the continent. There you can find completely preserved harnesses dating from the period from 1420 to 1550. These are magnificent specimens, polished and shining, but adorned like battle scars with nicks and dents from battle.

Rice. 2. Armor of Henry VIII. Made in the Royal Armory at Greenwich in 1537 (Windsor Castle).

What is missing in the armor that has survived to our time is more than made up for by grave sculptures, sculptures and paintings. For example, lying on a tombstone, like a fish on a baking sheet, a statue of a knight made of white stone seems to be just the embodiment of death, but it is not without interest from a historical point of view. In almost every case, such a statue has an exact copy of the armor that the person lying under the slab wore during his lifetime. Drawings from old manuscripts, which are usually reproduced in medieval history textbooks, often seem strange, especially to us, whose eyes are accustomed to photographs or drawings made in compliance with the laws of perspective. But these drawings allow you to look into the past and find out how people dressed, lived, worked and fought. True, it must be well remembered that not all medieval paintings give an accurate idea of ​​the past. Many give, but by no means all. While the best drawings and paintings are instructive, the bad ones give a completely wrong idea of ​​the past.

There is one more thing about medieval armor that is worth remembering: until the 15th century, there were only minor differences in style between the armor of different European countries. If, say, we want to know what an English baron looked like at the Battle of Lewes in 1264, then a picture from a Swedish or Spanish manuscript will tell us as much as sculptures in German or French cathedrals. After 1350, as we shall see a little later, national styles begin to emerge, and as time went on, the difference between them became more and more obvious.

Rice. 3. Statue of Sir Reginald Cobham on his grave in Lingfield Church, Surrey. He was one of the Black Prince's captains and died in 1361.

It is very tempting to think that to get acquainted with armor it is enough to look at English monuments or illustrations, but in the Middle Ages England did not play an important role in the world political arena. France, Spain, and Germany were then great powers, and together with Italy, England, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, and others, constituted a broad unity of Christian nations. With the exception of simple protective elements, armor in its entirety, generally speaking, was not made in England until 1519. Henry VIII invited several gunsmiths from Germany and established the Royal Armourers at Greenwich. Until then, no English style in the manufacture of armor simply existed. However, until 1420, all European armor was practically the same person, the international style dominated. But from that time on, Italian and German styles began to develop, and the knights, according to their tastes and preferences, dressed in armor made either in Italian or in German style.

In this book, I deal with the armor of the late Middle Ages, that is, the period between 1100 and 1500, so the armor of ancient people will not be considered here in detail. The armor of the Greeks and Romans deserves a separate study; we will not lose anything if we do not touch on Roman armor here, since they had practically no influence on the development of armor in medieval Europe. On the contrary, barbarians, that is, Gauls, Goths, Lombards and Franks, had such an influence. The Gothic horsemen who conquered Italy in the 5th and 6th centuries did not differ in their weapons from the knights of William of Normandy at Senlac or from the crusaders of the 12th and 13th centuries. The differences were very, very small. Just like their descendants, the Goths rode on large, tall horses, fought with spears and broad swords, wore helmets and mail shirts, and covered themselves in battle with shields. The combat tactics of the Goths have been developed over the course of a millennium. Figures 5 and 6 show what warriors in chainmail armor looked like in 1250 and in plate armor in 1375. The period of the greatest distribution of chain mail lasted until about 1350, and the period of the greatest distribution of plate armor from about 1350 to 1650, although, of course, after 1550 it is no longer possible to talk about the wide distribution of plate armor and the art of making armor is gradually declining.

There were also armor made from other materials; for example, in the inventory of weapons of Charles VI of France there is a record of full armor for a warrior and a horse made of Syrian leather. It is known that horn and whalebone were also used.

Rice. 4. Making chain mail. With the help of a tool taken in the right hand, the craftsman automatically inserts rivets into the holes and flattens them, connecting the rings.

It should be noted that chain mail is a flexible material, very hard, but not heavy, chain mail is strong enough to protect its wearer from cutting blows, although it was vulnerable to spear blows. Although mail was generally excellent at withstanding arrows, it could not withstand the arrows of the crossbow and the fearsome arrows of the Welsh and English archers. Chain mail was made from metal rings intertwined with each other so that each ring was connected to four others. Rings were made of iron wire, with the ends of each ring flattened, laid on top of each other and riveted, or (until the end of the 14th century) from "solid" rings that were squeezed out of a thin iron plate. Such solid rings - when they were used - alternated with riveted rings.

Rice. five. Full mail armor of a warrior (circa 1250).

Several chain rings. It shows how they connected with each other.

Rice. 6. Full plate armor (approximately 1350). This type of armor was used throughout Europe from 1350 to 1420.

Chain mail products - shirts, hoods, stockings, gloves - were made according to the same principle by which wool products are knitted in our time, increasing or decreasing the number of loops (rings) in a row or the number of rows themselves - depending on the method of wearing - facial or purl. We are quite well aware of how chain mail was made, but we know practically nothing about how the parts of chain mail were called. An analysis of the samples that have survived to this day clearly shows that they were made in exactly the same way as any knitted products, so there is no doubt that the mail masters used the same terminology in their work as wool knitters. "Solid" or "closed" rings were most likely beaten out with a punch from a thin iron sheet, while "open" or "riveted" rings were made from wire. A piece of wire of the required length was wound, as if on a coil, onto a rod of the required diameter. It turned out to be a real coil with one layer of coiled wire. This wire was cut in a straight line along the rod and received a lot of open open rings. These rings were heated red-hot, flattened at the ends, and pierced with holes for rivets. Then the rings passed from the blacksmith to the chain mail maker, who assembled them in accordance with the desired pattern, connecting the rings together and riveting their ends.

We still know little about the specific methods and techniques of armor making, but something can be gleaned from the few illustrations that show artisans at work, from lists of tools, and from careful analysis of how the skill of making mail armor developed. We also know something about the organization of work in weapons workshops, although this knowledge is depressingly scarce. There is data indicating specialization among the artisans who made chain mail. Sometime between 1298 and 1344, the Italian author Galvano Fiarnma wrote a work entitled "Chronichon Extravagans" in which he described some details of the work of the armourers of Milan, one of the most important centers of arms production between the thirteenth and sixteenth centuries. “On our territory,” writes Fjarnma, “there are a great many artisans who make all kinds of armor and weapons - hauberks, breastplates, plates, helmets, helmets, steel hats, necklaces, mittens, greaves, legguards, knee pads, as well as spears, throwing spears, swords and so on. These things are made of solid iron, sparkling like a mirror. There are no less than a hundred mail makers alone, not to mention countless apprentices who make rings for mail with the greatest skill. There are craftsmen who make round shields, large and small, and people who make weapons, and in general an incredible number. This city supplies weapons to all the cities of Italy and exports them even to the Tatars and Saracens. In Fjarnma's work, we have an eyewitness account of the fact that in the Middle Ages there was a certain specialization among gunsmiths, since each artisan performed a certain type of work. In addition, from the book of Fjarnma we learn that armor was worn already in the first half of the 14th century.

More is known from later documents. It is worth, for example, to look at the lists of artisans who worked in the Greenwich gunsmiths of Henry VIII in the 16th century. From these lists, we learn a lot about the specialization that existed in the workshops: “hammerers” forged plates, “rollers” molded and polished plates after forging them, “locksmiths” attached loops, clasps and fasteners to finished armor, and other artisans monitored the correct assembly of armor and made a lining.

In the Milanese workshops of the 15th century, we find a specialization that rivals that of modern production lines for the mass production of goods. Each of the artisans working in Milan was exclusively engaged in the manufacture of one particular piece of armor. Indeed, it is unlikely that there was ever such a time that one person could make armor entirely - from beginning to end. It's just as unbelievable that one person in this day and age would build a car from start to finish.

Armored vestments were made from bars (billets) of steel or hardened iron; these bars were forged into flat plates by hand or by falling water hammers. The plates were then cut according to the prepared patterns of various parts of the future armor, and then they were forged on a “template” or shape, similar to those with which silversmiths work today. Templates we call a set of small anvils of various shapes, mounted on a vertical stand, which could serve as a machine tool or a large wooden blank.

Cold forging was used to give the plate its basic rough shape, although the plate may have been annealed or hardened once or twice during this process. Some operations, such as folded parts, rolled edges, could only be produced by hot forging. After all the blanks were given the desired shape, the most difficult part of the work began: assembly and fitting of parts. This stage was, of course, the most important, because if different parts did not fit together or overlapped with each other, then the main goal of making armor would not be fulfilled - they would not protect their owner, would not provide sufficient flexibility and freedom movements, and dangerous gaps would arise between the parts. Take a closer look at the finished armor, and you will see for yourself how carefully each piece is fitted to the next. When the assembly and fitting of parts was completed, the product was handed over to polishers who cleaned and polished the armor on water abrasive wheels. If the armor was supposed to be decorated with notches or inlays, then the finished product was transferred to engravers or jewelers, and when they finished their work, the locksmith hung loops, clasps and straps on the finished armor. And finally, they made a lining from the inside and completed the final assembly of the finished armor.

The thickness of steel in armor varies, not only different parts differ in thickness - the same part in different places could have an unequal thickness. The breastplate is not only thicker than the back of the cuirass, but its front is thicker than the sides; the front part of the helmet, which protects the crown, is thicker than the part covering the back of the head. Surface hardness also varies, with the outside being much harder than the inside.

The surface of the armor is not inferior in hardness to glass, it is difficult to leave a scratch on them with any material; but this surface does not even remotely possess the fragility of glass. Some additives must have been used in the casting of the steel, although no one now knows exactly how this was done. Hardness was important for plate armor for the most practical reasons: hardness prevented penetration of the armor, since the hard, smooth, rounded and polished surface of the armor was designed to ward off and reflect the most powerful blows. From the descriptions of the last period of the Hundred Years War, we learn that even the arrows of the English archers could not penetrate the shells of the French soldiers - such armor was designed specifically to counter the archers, even if they fired at close range, the arrows simply bounced off. But, despite such hardness, we know that sometimes crushing blows with an ax, hammer or sword still pierced armor.

On most of the most solid armor, you can find the brand of a gunsmith - individual or workshop. In some cases, the brand is affixed only to the main parts, in other cases - on all parts and even on each plate. Sometimes on the outer (albeit more often on the inside) side of the armor you can see the sign of the owner - these are engraved or drawn icons (magic formulas or images of amulets). For example, on both knee pads (on the inside) and on the inside of both shoulder pads of Schott von Hellingen's armor, red Jerusalem crosses were painted. The coat of arms of Schott was engraved on the upper part of the outer side of the breastplate of the cuirass (Fig. 59). These signs and marks of the manufacturer, a kind of signature, testify to the pride of the people who made the armor. Gunsmiths sought to leave their mark, evidence that the armor was made by them. Sometimes the sign was placed as a symbol of loyalty to the overlord. In addition, in the manufacture of armor, one can see the beginnings of civic dignity, since in addition to the brands of gunsmiths, we can often observe on the armor "views of cities" where the masters lived, or notice the coats of arms of individual rulers (this is especially true for products made at the end of the Middle Ages) .

Armor has never been as heavy as it often seems to us. The full armor of 1470 was no heavier - and sometimes lighter - than the full kit of an English infantryman during the First World War. The average weight of the armor was 57 pounds (approximately 26 kilograms), but it must be remembered that this weight did not press on the shoulders, as it does on the shoulders of an infantryman, but was evenly distributed throughout the body. Contrary to popular belief, armor, among other things, was made so that it was comfortable to wear. The main concern of the gunsmith was to fit the armor exactly to the figure of the owner - not every first-class tailor achieves such an art. If there was such an opportunity, then measurements were taken from the owner of the future armor, and then the finished product was customized for several fittings. If for some reason the owner of the future armor could not come to the workshop himself, then the measurement data was sent there. For example, the knights of England or Spain often ordered armor from Milan or Augsburg. Sometimes measurements were sent with clothing samples, and sometimes wax copies were taken from the customer's limbs. For example, the Duke of Touraine in 1386 "sent to Germany a small doublet as a model for making a pair of plates (breast and back) for his person."

Or let us cite an entry in the account book of the Spanish royal house, dating back to the second quarter of the 16th century: “For wax for casting the model of His Majesty’s legs, sent to Mr. Desiderius Colman, who is engaged in the manufacture of armor ...” Such care for the exact fit of armor applies to both mail armor and and to armored armor, although, of course, the flexibility of chain mail made it possible to pay less attention to the precise fitting of equipment. And finally, anyone who was to become a warrior began to train in wearing armor from the age of seven, so when a child became a knight, he was already accustomed to constantly wearing armor (all boys of noble birth belonged to the warrior class, but there were exceptions).

The noble youths of the Middle Ages learned to wear armor, just as children now learn to read and write, from a very young age. Juan Quejada de Reago, knight and writer of the early 16th century, argues "the need to educate a warrior from that early age when the boy begins to learn to read, learning the alphabet" ("Teaching on the Art of Chivalry" ("Doctrina Delia Arte Delia Cavalleria"). Every day the student wore armor and practiced in it, because when he became a man, he had to spend a lot of time in armor, not to mention the fact that he needed to fight in them (in the Middle Ages, a person who had reached the age of fourteen was considered a warrior). the warrior not only knew how to wear armor, he was the proud heir to the tradition founded by his ancestors a thousand years ago - to spend most of his life in combat equipment.

Of course, the armor had major flaws. The biggest of these—regardless of how accustomed the wearer was to wearing them and how well they fit—were stuffiness and overheating. In armor, a warrior could suffer from unbearable heat. Shakespeare is obviously well acquainted with this problem, since in the second part of the historical tragedy "King Henry the Fourth" he says the following through the mouth of Prince Henry:

The way rich people wear armor on a hot day,
That they will burn you with their reliability.

((Act IV, verses 30-31))

At the great battle of Agincourt in 1415, King Henry's uncle the Duke of York, a corpulent middle-aged man, died of exhaustion and heatstroke in his armour.

If we take prehistoric times as a starting point, then the development of European protective equipment went in two directions - classical and barbaric. The first includes the bronze and iron armor of the Mycenaeans, Greeks and Romans. This development began around 2000 BC. e. and ended at the beginning of the Middle Ages in the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium). The beginning of the second direction was laid by the leather and chain mail armor of the barbarians - the Celtic and Teutonic peoples, who fought with Rome for centuries and eventually overturned the great empire in the 5th and 6th centuries. This type of armor existed in Europe until the 17th century.

At the end of the first chapter, it was said that the 12th-century crusader was armed and equipped in the same way as his Gothic ancestor in the 4th century: it should be noted that the plate equipment of the Celtic warrior in 400 BC. e. was, in general terms, the same as that of the crusader. The basis of all European armor was a chain mail shirt. The origin of chain mail and the time of its first appearance are unknown, but there is enough documentary evidence that the Celts used chain mail as early as the 4th century BC. e.

Rice. 7.

Before chain mail, a barbarian warrior protected his body in battle with leather armor, apparently such “bull shells” that were worn in all armies of Europe in the period from 1650 to 1750, when the production of metal armor was finally stopped. Conical bronze helmets and large wooden shields have been found in burials dated to 700 BC. e. The Gauls who fought with Rome left a lot of archaeological evidence of their weapons and armor: chain mail shirts, fully preserved shields, a large number of helmets of various types, countless spears and numerous swords. We find information about these items from Roman writers, who not only described in detail the weapons themselves, but also how their owners used them. The picture is complemented by fragments of sculptures that have survived to our time - large and small (Fig. 8). Approximately the same weapons and the same armor were used mainly by European warriors until the time of the Normans, that is, until 1066. There are many illustrations that convincingly demonstrate that in the first millennium AD. e. in the armament of the European knights, the Gallic influence was very strongly felt. For example, Figure 9 shows an image of a mounted warrior minted on the wall of a large gold vase made around 860 AD. e. This vase is part of a treasure found in Hungary, in a place that is very difficult for English speakers to pronounce, Nagyszentmiklos.

I drew this image in a modern manner, because, despite the fact that the ancient jeweler depicted in great detail the weapons and armor, yet the rider and horse look rather strange to the modern reader. In addition, the warrior does not have a sword on the vase. There must have been good reasons for this, but for our purposes I took the risk of supplying him with a sword as well. As you can see, the arms and equipment of this warrior are very similar to the vestments of the Gaul from Vacher (Fig. 8), but this rider is even more similar to the Norman knights from the Bayeux tapestry.

Rice. eight. Gallo-Roman statue of a Celtic warrior circa 100 BC. e. from Vashere.

Mail shirt (which the northern peoples called tags, and in the rest of Europe they called hauberkom) It was a long, almost knee-length robe. The neck opening was closed with a cord or flap closure, and after 1100 the short, loose sleeves became long and fitted. After 1175, the sleeves of many hauberks began to end with deaf “mittens”, which were pulled over the wrist. Mittens were small chain mail bags with a separate thumb holder. The palm, for a very obvious reason, was not protected by chain mail, but in some cases a piece of fabric was sewn to the edges of the hole. There was a hole in the fabric, from which it was easy to free your hand, since the mitten was put on only when a collision became inevitable. Until about 1250, a mail hood was an indispensable part of the hauberk. After 1250, this hood began to be made as a separate piece. The front hole was pulled together with a cord passed through the edge of the hole or fastened with a special clasp with a flap (Fig. 5). Worn over the head, this hood was very similar to a Balaclava helmet.

Rice. nine. Equestrian warrior of the 9th century. Redrawn from an image on a gold vase found at Nagyszentmiklos, Hungary.

At the very beginning of the era of wearing chain mail, the legs were protected only by leather or linen trousers (cut approximately like modern jeans), which were tied crosswise at the knees if the knight did not wear knee-high boots, but starting from 1100, wealthy warriors began to wear chain mail stockings , which were up to the foot and also covered it. The stockings were held in place by strips of leather attached to the belt. Such stockings were called "chausses" (harem pants) (Fig. 11).

Mail armor protected its owner from the effects of cutting and chopping blows, but since chain mail is flexible and pliable, it could not protect against hematomas and fractures. Therefore, leather clothes were worn under chain mail - long “pants” on the legs and a tight-fitting leather camisole and a tight quilted shirt. Worn under mail, these leather garments were quite effective at absorbing the force of blows, but still the warrior's main means of defense was a shield and agility in evading blows. It was much better to dodge a blow than to test the strength of the armor.

Rice. 10."Mitten" (mail gauntlet), a fragment of a copper image of Sir Robert de Septvans in a Kentish church (1306).

Rice. eleven. Dressing in chain mail. The warrior on the left fastens the chausses, the man in the center pulls on the stockings that protect the thighs, and the man on the right puts on the hauberk over his head, which was worn over a quilted "robe".

Until about 1190, the hauberk was worn over all other clothes, but after that time, linen clothes began to be worn over chain mail, similar in style to a nightgown (Fig. 7 and 12). Such a coating probably served to protect the metal chain mail from moisture, and perhaps to prevent overheating from sunlight. Later, linen clothes were decorated with coats of arms and other heraldic symbols.

Rice. 12. An equestrian warrior dressed in chain mail in a fight with a halberdier. The drawing shows the earliest form of the halberd as it was used in the early 14th century. On the head of an infantryman armed with a halberd, an iron bowler hat, a leather cap and a quilted brigandine are put on.

A chain mail cap was worn over a tight-fitting small quilted hat, similar to a hairnet, and a small helmet was worn over the cap. Until about 1050-1100, this protective headdress, in our view, was associated with the Normans, although throughout Europe it was worn starting from the early Iron Age (about 800 BC), and in the early Middle Ages, the chain mail cap was very popular on a huge from Persia to Sweden. Prehistoric helmets or caps were forged from thin bronze, but already at the beginning of the Middle Ages, helmets began to be made from triangular iron plates riveted to a bronze frame. Medieval helmets were edged along the lower edge with a horizontal strip at the level of the eyebrows, and two (or more) curved iron strips were attached to this strip, which were fastened at an angle to the top of the helmet. After 1050, helmets of this type were increasingly made from a single iron plate. But why did this happen? Probably because a solid, seamless iron plate provided more reliable protection. After 1150, a tall helmet with a flat top and straight sides appears, a bit reminiscent of a pan. But from 1220 this type of helmet was replaced by a more practical cap, made in the shape of the head; such steel caps came to dominate along with walnut-shaped helmets.

What we have now briefly described was the basis of the "harness" of European warriors from 1050 to 1300. This armor was effective if we consider its ability to prevent death from cold weapons as effective, but the armor described could not prevent injuries, many of which caused permanent injuries; if an archer hit the warrior, then the armor turned out to be completely useless, since the narrow “pilum” (tip) of an arrow almost one meter long, flying with terrible force, passed through chain mail weaving like a knife through butter.

Very instructive are the words and deeds of the Herald of Welsh, known by the name of Giraldus Cambrensis; this chronicler of the twelfth century, who, by his aims and intentions, can safely be called a medieval journalist, among other things, tells a lot of interesting things about the endless battles on the Welsh border that took place at the end of the twelfth century. Describing the clash of the soldiers of one of the English barons, William de Braose, with the Welsh, Herald tells how a Welsh archer shot at an English cavalryman. The arrow hit the Englishman in the thigh, pierced the chain mail shirt (hauberk), chain mail gaiter, pants; piercing the leg right through, the arrow went through the wooden and leather parts of the saddle and wounded the horse. Against a weapon that had such penetrating power and caused physical wounds and a lot of hard feelings, chain mail, obviously, could not resist. At the beginning of the 14th century, the effectiveness of the bow against chain mail was demonstrated with terrifying clarity. It was during this period that the English yeomen, having mastered the Welsh bow, practically exterminated two Scottish armies at Dapplin (1332) and Halidon Hill (1333). Later, in 1346, at Crécy, the English army, which consisted of two-thirds of the archers, decimated the haughty French chivalry. After such a demonstration of the power of the longbow, the terrible glory of this weapon spread throughout Europe. It became clear to most of the military that more effective protection was required from the bow than chain mail. But what, pray tell, could resist the deadly action of a well-aimed sharp arrow fired from a large powerful bow, bent by the hands of an experienced archer? In addition, if you think about it, the longbow was not the only problem that the warrior’s protective equipment faced, for just at the same time a new infantry weapon appeared on the battlefields - a large ax with a wide blade and a thick point at the end of the shaft, which at the same time gave it a resemblance to a spear. Mounted on a shaft about five feet long, this ax-like weapon was later called halberd. In the Battle of Courtrai in Flanders (1302), the halberd was used by strong Flemish townspeople, who destroyed a large and superbly armed army of French knights. Later, in 1315, the Swiss peasants used the halberd with such deadly force that they literally blew the Austrian cavalry to pieces at Morgarten. England, too, was not without this new means, when the army of the Scots under the command of Bruce defeated the large army of Edward II at Bannockburn in 1314. The weapons used during these battles showed all their power, accuracy and strength, by no means chivalrous inflicting crippling blows and easily breaking through the armor of cavalrymen dressed in chain mail.

Such formidable events for chivalry and the use of the weapons mentioned, no doubt, accelerated the development of armored armor. But not only they served as the main reason for this development. In any case, from the very beginning of the XIV century, for thirty years, experiments were carried out on the use of lamellar armor to protect the limbs. In addition, one should not forget that solid armor for the protection of the body has always been used since ancient times.

In the middle of the 13th century, lamellar protection of the knee was added to chain mail stockings, chausses. These devices, called knee pads fastened to the lower edge of tight quilted pants that covered the hips. Some of these "gaiters" were made in the form of separate sleeves worn over the hips like trousers, but in some cases they were real trousers, resembling breeches in shape. In some cases, mainly after 1230, the front of the legs began to be covered with light metal plates, which were called half leggings, but they were rare until the end of the century. Beginning around 1300, the use of closed leggings. They were made from two plates, one for the front of the lower leg, the second for the back. The plates were connected to each other by loops on the outer side of the lower leg and fastened with straps and buckles on the inner side (Fig. 13 and 14).

Rice. 13. Half greaves, circa 1310.

Rice. fourteen. Closed greaves, circa 1325. Although closed greaves became widespread after 1320, there is evidence that they were worn as early as 1310.

Rice. fifteen. Doublet. Small, overlapping iron plates were riveted to the inside of the vest. The side plates go onto the back, where they are fastened to the back plates with straps and buckles; not reinforced with plates, the neck part of the doublet, which was put on over the head, is located on the shoulders and is attached to the rest of the "buttons".

Solid iron or leather armor to protect the torso appeared simultaneously with half-knives. Samples of this equipment have not reached our time. As you know, they were worn under clothing, so we can only judge their construction from statues and illustrations, which give only an approximate idea. We have reliable literary sources at our disposal proving that iron plates began to be used for making breastplates as early as 1190 (see the books of Giraldus Cambrensis "Topographia Hibernica et Expugnatio Hibernica", lib. I, chapter XX; Guillaume le Breton "Philippide", lib.III, lines 494-498). Another, more common type of protective equipment has also been developed; they called him doublet or brigandine. We can say that it was an ordinary fabric vest, the inner surface of which was overlapped with small metal plates that were fastened (usually with rivets) to the fabric. Sometimes the doublet served as outerwear. Metal plates were riveted or sewn to the inside of the doublet on the chest and back, leaving the floors free. In other cases, the doublet was made as a separate piece of equipment and put on a chain mail shirt and under outerwear (Fig. 15).

Until about 1340, many wealthy and fashionable warriors used reinforced chain mail. However, equipment of this type was very vulnerable to halberds and bows. Why? The fact is that these means of protection had connecting seams that could be pierced, expanded, stuck there with the tip of a sword or a spearhead. In addition, such equipment was multi-layered - leather camisole, quilted lining, hauberk, doublet or brigandine, upper cape - all this made the knight clumsy and clumsy. Soon, what caused awkwardness in movement became ineffective and fell into disuse. The result was a full-body, flexible, articulated protective gear that was, in a way, a step backwards from chainmail, but now using a material with a hard, impenetrable surface.

Rice. 16. Breastplate of the late 14th century (Bavarian National Museum, Munich).

The doublet was the main means of protecting the body throughout the 14th century, although steel breastplates were in use as early as 1350; these breastplates were made from one solid plate; often a protective back plate was worn at the same time. We draw information on the appearance and design of such equipment mainly from the sculptural images of the knights of that time, but in Munich there is a real breastplate made around 1390 (see Fig. 16). This shell covers the body from the neck to the waist and, like a good old doublet, is covered with cloth (red velvet on a rough canvas). This fabric descends below the waist and passes into a short skirt, to the inner surface of which five semicircular iron strips are riveted, overlapping, like scales, with upper parts. This protection is made in the style of the previous doublet, but it is more effective, since the semicircular loops go to the sides of the skirt and thus cover not only the front. This skirt was called a cape or tunic and was used all the time while armor was used in military affairs.

Many cuirasses have survived to our time, all of them were made after 1420. These samples prove observation and accuracy in the depiction of armor, weapons and clothing of medieval sculptors and artists. breastplate called a protective device that simultaneously covers the chest and back; the term began to be used starting from the 15th century, and it comes from the word "cuirie", or "cuiret", which denoted a (usually leather) breastplate. Another term that has been used to protect the chest and back since the 14th century is the “paired plate”.

Rice. 17. Legplates, circa 1380. This is part of the armor (kept in Chartres) made for the French king Charles VI when he was a child.

The armor that protected the leg consisted of closed greaves, knee pads and gaiters. Leggings (as, for example, shown in Figure 14) covered the entire shin; the kneecap was made from a single metal plate, in which a convex recess was made, corresponding in shape to the kneecap and covering the patella, then on the sides the kneecap passed into a small flat plate covering the lateral and back surfaces of the knee joint. The main part of the kneecap was attached from above and below to narrow plates, one of which was attached to the greaves, and the second to the cuisse. The inner surface of the knee joint was left unprotected, as this would make it difficult to land in the saddle. The gaiter was made from one solid plate, forged according to the shape of the outer part of the thigh.

Starting around 1380, a second, narrower plate was riveted to the main plate, protecting the back of the thigh (Fig. 17). The foot was also reliably protected with the help of the so-called solereta or sabaton - consisting of overlapping narrow plates (in appearance, the sabaton resembled the body of a wasp or lobster). Sometimes sabatons were attached to the bottom of the leggings, and sometimes they were made as a separate pair of shoes. When attached to the leggings, a pair of straps were passed under the heel, which held the sabatons. If the soleret was a separate piece of equipment, then it was attached to the shoes. The legguards were held in place by straps wrapped around the thigh. The cord was attached to a leather flap, which at one end was riveted to the gaiter, and the other end was hung from the belt, that is, in the same way as in earlier times for attaching mail stockings.

Rice. eighteen. Bracers, circa 1360.

Armor for the hands was called bracers. At first, this term denoted a protective device for the forearm, and from the end of the 14th century, they began to protect the entire arm with steel. Armor for the hand consisted of a lower bracer - a pair of small plates that covered the forearm, just like leggings protected the shin. The lower bracer was attached to the elbow pad, shaped like a knee pad. The elbow pad, in turn, was attached to the upper bracer - a pair of plates that protected the shoulder. In contrast to the gaiter, the upper bracer covered the shoulder around the entire circumference. The shoulder girdle was protected by a succession of overlapping small plates called the pauldron. At the same time, the area of ​​​​the shoulder joint remained unprotected, but since the knights, as a rule, wore a chain mail shirt under the shell, this area was not completely defenseless either. This deficiency was made up for by a plate that protected the armpit. A strap was riveted to the back surface of the plate, which was fastened to the shoulder pad, that is, the plate was freely suspended above the armpit.

Rice. nineteen. Hourglass-shaped gauntlet, circa 1360.

Plate gauntlets protected the hands; as early as the middle of the 13th century, small iron plates, as well as plates made of horn or whalebone, began to be attached to leather gloves. However, by 1350 a simpler design had been developed. One plate was forged in the form of a short expanding cuff with a bell, which protected the back of the hand and the side surface of the thumb. This plate was fastened to a leather glove, on the fingers of which overlapping small plates were riveted (Fig. 19). Many of these gauntlets can be seen on tombstones, and almost completely preserved gauntlets belonging to Edward the Black Prince are still kept in Canterbury Cathedral. Even leather gloves were preserved in these mittens.

The helmets worn with armor of the type described had something in common with the old conical helmets of the Normans, but were higher, and the sides and back of the head went down. Instead of putting on a chain mail cap under the helmet, they began to fasten chain mail to the lower edge of the helmet, and it hung from them like a curtain, covering the chin and neck, falling on the shoulders like a cape (Fig. 21). This cape is called aventail (the British called it "aventail", the French "camail"). The face opening of the helmets called bascinets, covered visor. On some helmets, the old nosepiece was preserved, as on the helmets of the ancient Normans, but now, in the XIV century, the nosepiece was not part of the helmet, protruding forward and down from its front, but became part of the aventail; when the nasal was not needed, he hung on his chest. When the hour of battle came, the warrior simply lifted it up and attached it to the forehead of the helmet. As a result, part of the aventail also rose up and covered the mouth and cheeks. It was a fairly popular device, but by no means was it particularly effective. Much better was the visor, which was made from one large plate that completely covered the face. The visor was attached to the frontal part of the helmet with a loop, but just like the nose guard, it could be removed if it was not necessary to fight. Many such visors have been preserved; some had a very simple shape (Fig. 20), but others had a protruding trunk in front. Above the trunk were viewing slots, equipped with a protruding rim to protect the eyes; the same gap was under the trunk, which made the visor a grotesque copy of a human face. Larger versions of the visor with a trunk were also made. The sides of the visor were pushed back and overlapped the sides of the helmet. The sides were attached to pins fixed to the main part of the helmet above the ears (Fig. 21). Such a mount resembled a hinged suspension with removable pins; when the knight did not need a visor, he simply pulled the pins out of the hinges. The pins were suspended from the helmet on leather straps and were not lost. Outside of battle, the knight generally removed the visor from the helmet and wore it separately (or, more likely, gave it to the squire).

Rice. twenty. Bascinet with looped visor, called keyboardvisor(Valerie Museum, Sitten).

Rice. 21. Bascinet with visor, circa 1390 (Arsenal of Hurburg Castle, Tyrol).

Until about 1420, outerwear was put on top of the armor. It was no longer a cape fluttering in the wind, like a nightgown of the thirteenth century. Now it was a well-fitted garment, tightly fitting to the armor, and it looked like a sailor's uniform. These clothes were usually picturesquely decorated with the coats of arms of the owners. In England it was called coat of arms(coat of arms). Now this expression is used to denote the wearing of a coat of arms. After 1420 (and on the continent even earlier) they refused to wear coats of arms, and the knights, for the first time in their long history, appear clad from head to toe in gleaming steel. In those days, uncovered armor was called "white" armor.

After about 1420, there were several important changes in the design and style of armor production. The most noticeable phenomenon was the refusal to wear armorial outerwear, although in the late fifties of the XV century they began to wear raincoats. These capes were worn over armor and decorated with a coat of arms. Another innovation was the increase in the size of the plate cape. This feature is shown in figure 22. In order to illustrate the main features of armor around 1430, I have chosen a silver figurine of St. George from Barcelona. The statuette, made in the second half of the 15th century, depicts - very faithfully and with precise details - the Milanese armor of that era. True, when redrawing the figurine, I took some liberties: I removed the shield added in the XVTTT century, restored the upper legguards (small plates hanging from the lower edge of the cape), depicting them, as expected, with the right side out. Once they were removed, and then hung again, but inside out. Similar armor can be seen on the statue of William Philip, Lord Berdolph in Dennington Church, Suffolk. Several interconnected hoops were attached to the lower edge of the back of the cuirass. This element of lat was called kulet. Sometimes a freely hanging plate was attached to the lower edge of the kulet, covering the sacrum - back gaiter. By 1450, the style of the plate cape had changed. An arcuate hole was cut in the bottom plate. Gradually, this opening increased in size, and in the end the bottom plate was simply divided into two, and a pair of large legguards was obtained. Compare figure 23, which shows a cuirass of this type (Milanese work around 1460), with figure 22.

Rice. 22. Silver statuette of Saint George, circa 1430 (Barcelona).

Rice. 23. Milanese cuirass around 1460. Front, side and back view. Four holes in the right side of the breastplate are designed for the bolts that attached the removable support for the spear.

On the statuette of St. George, you see a small additional plate at the bottom of the breastplate of the cuirass, which is attached to it by a belt located in the center of the plate - this reinforcing piece is called placard. As the century passed, this part became larger. On the cuirass shown in figure 23, this part already reaches almost to the very top of the breastplate. The rear plate of the cuirass is made of overlapping parts, which gives it quite good flexibility. The rivet holes are more like slots (movable or German rivets) that allow up and down movements. Figure 23b shows the cuirass on the left side. As you can see, the front and back of the cuirass are looped in this place. In order to put on this part of the armor, the warrior opened the cuirass on hinges, put it on and closed it. After that, both halves of the cuirass were fastened together with fasteners located on the right side of the armor. The strap was attached to the breastplate and threaded through the buckle located on the back of the cuirass. The upper edges of the cape and culet simply pounced on the cuirass from above in its lower part. You must have already noticed that the main distinguishing feature of the armor is the abundance of overlapping plates. Wherever possible, the plates are overlapped so as to deflect piercing and slashing blows from any weapon the enemy may be using. Obviously, this was the main task of the artisan gunsmith and a sign of his high skill, based on the practical concern for safety, which, after all, is the main goal, since we are talking about armor. But it is surprising that when they make imitation of armor, for some reason this iron rule is often neglected.

The armor of those times always had powerful, outward-curved edges of the main plates, especially the edges of the holes for the hands and the neck of the cuirass. The same protruding powerful ribs were added to the legguards (stopping ribs); the purpose was to fix or deflect the point of any weapon that slid across the plate. This trend is especially clearly visible in the style of the necklace, where the protruding ribs eventually took the form of a standing collar that protected the weak spot between the lower edge of the helmet and the upper part of the cuirass.

Rice. 24. Bracers, circa 1460. Compare with the bracers in Figure 18.

In general, the form of armor in Europe changed little until about 1420, when two original national schools arose, two completely different national styles - one in Italy and the second in Germany. The Italian style followed the traditions of the early "international" style, although the armor became heavier and more durable, and the small side extensions (blade plates) - on the sides of the knee and elbow pads - became larger and acquired a V-shaped prong in the middle. This prong extended a metal cover to the back of the knee and to the elbow area. By 1440, most of the back of the knee and the elbow were protected in most armour. Small pauldrons of the 14th century survived, but were now covered with a necklace, a separate and complex element made of several plates and better covering the shoulder blades (Fig. 24). In Italy, these necklaces became simply huge at the back, but in many cases they were shaped differently from the front. The right side of the necklace was cut off so as not to interfere with the use of a spear, which in battle was often held under the arm. The left part of the necklace became larger and now almost completely covered the upper part of the breastplate, as it now played the role of a shield, which for the most part fell into disuse by 1400. Similarly, reinforcing and lengthening elements were introduced into the design of the left elbow pad and the left side of the necklace, respectively. It was impossible to use these elements on the right, as they fixed the arm in a bent position. If a warrior fought on horseback, then his left hand remained almost motionless all the time. But if the warrior fought on foot, then he did not put on additional "shields" on the elbow piece and on the necklace, since in this situation both hands had to be free - in order to hold a sword or a long ax with both hands, a weapon that became very popular among knights in the 15th century. century (Fig. 26). Sometimes the elements that strengthened the necklace and elbow pieces were fastened with pins threaded into a special ring, but more often waxed braided cords were used, sewn to the underwear; their ends were threaded into the holes of the plates and tied (Fig. 25).

Rice. 25. Nodal fastening of the elbow piece, circa 1460.

Rice. 26. Ax (Wallace Collection, London).

Like the Italian, the German style began to develop after 1420; his first achievement was a change in the shape of the lower part of the breastplate - it began to take the form of a rectangular box, which the Germans called Kastenburst (see Fig. 34a). Somewhat later, relief diverging rays were added; After about 1440, German armourers stopped making a rectangular protrusion on the breastplate and moved on to the manufacture of elegant, refined armor, the breastplates of which were often decorated with such relief diverging rays. Later, after 1455, the Germans began to add rays to other plate elements of armor - to the necklace, bracers, thigh and knee pads, but never to greaves. German armor of the late 15th century began to be called gothic, probably because of their thin, elongated shape and graceful decorations, which resembled the decoration of buildings of Gothic architecture. Some of the most beautiful, most magnificent armor is of this type. Some fine armor is kept in Vienna, these are excellent examples of craftsmanship, but they were never intended for actual battles; it was "ceremonial" armor. In the 15th century, armor played a social role, symbolizing wealth and social status, and was worn on special occasions. For combat use made simpler (and even more beautiful) armor. This armor was called field or combat; usually they were simple in execution and not decorated with anything. good example of this kind are the armor of Schott von Hellingen. But for all that, the most beautiful of battle armor was also decorated with divergent chased rays and corrugations. These rays were applied to armor not only to make it more beautiful; on thin plates, the rays played the role of protrusions on corrugated iron - protrusions make steel stronger and increase its resistance to impact (Fig. 27).

Rice. 27."Gothic" field armor of Baron Pankratz von Freiberg, made around 1475. These armor, along with horse armor, were purchased from the arms collection of the Austrian castle of Hohenschau and are now displayed in all their splendor in the Wallace collection in London. A model of a knight sits astride a horse, also clad in armor. Lack of space forced me to depict a knight on foot, without gauntlets, sabatons and a bouvier on his chin. But even in those days there was nothing unusual in such wearing of armor.

At the end of the 15th century, the Italian and German styles merge, forming the so-called Maximilian style, since it appeared during the reign of this romantic and chivalrous, but also incomparably courageous emperor (1493-1519). Armor becomes more rounded and powerful; Schott's armor can be called an early example of such a mixed style. Some parts of the armor fit snugly to the body (with the exception of the greaves) and are covered with dense corrugations, the grooves run parallel, and do not diverge, as in early Gothic style armor. Such chased and corrugated armor was called comb. By the end of the 15th century, a new element was added to the armor. After 1490, the breastplate of the cuirass became shorter, its upper part now reached the upper part of the sternum, and not the throat, so it appeared necklace, an element that protected the throat and upper chest. The necklace eventually took the form of a high collar made of three or four narrow horizontal plates reaching to the lower jaw. Later I will describe how the necklace was worn.

Rice. 28. Plate gauntlets.

a - from Hurburg Castle, circa 1390 b - from Hurburg Castle, circa 1425 (German style).

in - Milanese mitten, circa 1460 G - Gothic mitt, circa 1470 e - gauntlet of the Maximilian style, circa 1520.

A short plate gauntlet forged from a single plate with a bell and small plates fixed to the fingers of a leather glove was used until the second quarter of the 15th century, when it was replaced by a glove of larger size and more complex design. Drawings better than words show how the design of gauntlets developed throughout the 15th century (Fig. 29).

The helmets worn during the 15th century varied considerably; most types were developed before 1440 and their style did not change much until about 1500. Until 1425, the most popular were helmets with a large trunk visor of the type bascinet, although even at the beginning of this century, helmets forged from a single metal plate began to replace helmets with chain mail aventail. These all-metal helmets were also distinguished by their name - they were called big bascinets. The form of these latter began to change from 1425 onwards. The visor, having lost its elongated shape, began to be made in the form of a hemisphere. The breathing gap disappeared, giving way to numerous small holes (Fig. 22 and 29), while the back surface of the domed part of the helmet, instead of a vertically descending wall, began to be made in a shape corresponding to the line of the skull. This type of helmet, very popular throughout the 15th century, became the basis for the development of the most common type of helmet in the 16th and 17th centuries - the closed helmet.

Rice. 29. a - Sir Giles Caple's helmet, probably made in London in 1511 (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York). This type of helmet is the result further development bascinet. It was very popular at the beginning of the 16th century; b - large bascinet of the Imperial Count Frederick the Victorious. Around 1450. Made by Tommaso da Missaglia in Milan (Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna).

Rice. thirty. Helmets, Italy, around 1474: a - closed, b - open, ready to wear.

Rice. 31. Salad.

Even earlier, around 1440, another a new style helmet. It is currently called arme, and the same designation was in use in the 15th century. But with the terminological uncertainty that prevailed in the Middle Ages, it can be assumed that the word "arme" denoted indiscriminately all helmets equipped with a visor. Lightweight and tight-fitting to the head, the armet provided better protection and greater mobility than the bascinet. Figure 30 shows the design of the arm. Helmets of this style, developed in Italy, won great favor in France, but never became popular in England. At the same time, another type of helmet appears in Germany. This very ancient style was at one time quite popular for centuries. The helmet had wide brim and was named bowler hat. In the middle of the 15th century, however, a more elegant and beautiful version of such an open helmet appeared, called lettuce(Fig. 31). Sometimes the sallet was worn on its own, simply as a hat; but often added bouvigère, protecting the chin. A chain mail cap was also worn under the helmet to protect the neck and the back of the head, protruding from under the rear edge of the helmet (Fig. 32). There were many different forms of lettuce between 1450 and 1510, with each type often reflecting a national style.

Rice. 32. Wearing lettuce: a - with lowered visor and raised bouvier (chin rest); b - long hair was tied up to hide under the salad; in - before putting on the salad, the chin and head were covered with a soft cloth; G - lettuce with raised visor and lowered bouvier.

One of the features of these 15th-century helmets was the look that the craftsmen gave to the upper domed part of the helmet, which was pulled up in the form of a longitudinal ridge that stretched from the eyebrows to the back of the head. In some sallets, this crest was especially distinct and high. In closed helmets of the 16th century, this feature was especially clearly expressed. In some cases this cockscomb was about two inches high above the dome of the helmet.

At the same time that the armet was being developed in Italy and the sallet in Germany, a completely different form of helmet was created in Italy, or rather, revived. Revived - because it almost exactly copied the shape of a certain Greek - Corinthian - helmet; it can be assumed that the interest in Greek sculpture and painted ceramics that arose at that time stimulated the desire of Italian gunsmiths in the middle of the 15th century to copy this form (Fig. 33).

Until the second quarter of the 17th century, armor was used in real combat conditions, although they were less and less worn in full. Attempts to make the armor so strong that they could withstand the impact of bullets fired from handguns led to the weighting of the armor, so much so that they became unsuitable for practical use. No matter how well one or another gunsmith made armor - the development of handguns and the increase in the power of cannons made it impossible to create completely safe plate vestments. By the end of the 16th century, armor was increasingly used as "ceremonial attire" and less and less often as "field armor". At the end of the century, however, many magnificent armors were still made, but their excellent forms were in many ways lost - lost forever.

Rice. 33. A helmet made in the style now known as "barbute", copied from Greek Corinthian helmets.

The cuirass and helmet forms are the most notable pieces of armor from this late period of decline. I have already described the basic principles of cuirass design, so I will briefly touch only on their later types. In the 15th century, warriors sometimes went into battle only in cuirasses and helmets, without putting on leg armor, bracers and shoulder pads. Refusal of heavy equipment was dictated by considerations of convenience; after 1500, this approach to armor became more common, and now the armor began to be made with additional details - for example, elongated cuisses protected the upper thigh. Therefore, equipment could now be worn in parts, selectively. However, this did not mean that simplification began to dominate in the art of gunsmiths. Many of the armor of that time that have come down to us look truly chivalrous.

The images in figures 34 and 35 show the main forms of cuirasses from 1440 to 1650. The most notable changes affected the front of the breastplate. Gradually, the rounded spherical shapes of the early 16th century began to stretch, and around 1535 acquired a rather strange appearance - with a sharp protrusion in the front. By the sixties of the 16th century, this type of cuirass is gradually falling into decay; soon it completely disappears, giving way to a long bib descending onto the stomach with a longitudinal elevation. At the same time, the cape becomes shorter and wider with the cuisses hanging from the breastplate. Such a change in the shape of the cape was due to the wearing of then fashionable pants with puffs. In fact, armor followed on the heels of fashion. For example, at the beginning of the 16th century, puffs and slits came into fashion, and armor began to imitate this form of clothing. For example, the fashion for a "puffy" double camisole, which appeared in the sixties of the 16th century, attracted the attention of gunsmiths (Fig. 35, b), puffed capes and leggings appeared. At the end of the Elizabethan era and with the introduction of the “cavalier” style into fashion, the style of armor also changes, which become frankly ugly (Fig. 35, c). (By the way, the Elizabethan era lasted long after the death of the formidable queen. The end of this period falls on the twenties of the 17th century.) Short-brimmed camisoles were imitated by very short shapeless breastplates, the cape became unnecessary, and it was replaced by a pair of very long cuisses, hanging almost to the knees. These leggings paired very well with the huge, baggy, knee-length breeches that came into fashion between 1610 and 1650. These voluminous breeches were a great advantage for marauders, as a lot of booty could be stuffed into such trousers. The wearing of armor was almost completely abandoned by 1650, which, if we limit our curiosity about historical armor to their aesthetic contemplation, was only for the better. It is better to abandon the idea of ​​wearing armor altogether than to be disgusted by disgusting and ugly styles.

Such was the armor worn during the civil war in England and in the endless wars on the Continent (the Thirty Years' War was just one of them). However, long legguards were soon abandoned, and soldiers in the army in the field wore only cuirasses and a helmet; sometimes this equipment was supplemented with a small necklace or a pair of long gauntlets worn over clothes made of thick (bovine) skin.

Rice. 34. Forms of cuirasses and helmets: a - German, around 1430. Large bascinet and castenburst; b - German "Gothic" form, 1480, sallet and bouvigère; in -"Maximilian", 1520, a closed helmet with a corrugated visor; G - German style, pointed bib and burgonet.

Rice. 35. Cuirass and helmet forms: a - 1550-1570, with a helmet; b - 1570-1600, with morion; in - 1620-1640, with long legguards and an open helmet.

This period was the time endless variety helmets, but all of their types were the development of three main types, based on the same medieval styles. The closed helmet (Fig. 34, a and 35, a) comes from a large bascinet of the 15th century; The bourgonet (Fig. 34d) was an open helmet with a cheek protector derived from the sallet, and various types of hat-like helmets derived from the bowler hat. These latter are probably the most famous and common forms in the history of armor. Morion(Fig. 35, b) and cabasset, which the Elizabethan English called Spanish morion(although the Spaniards rarely wore it) come from a purely Spanish form of the 15th century, from a bowler hat, which was called that - cabacete. The well-known "lobster tail" - the helmet of the English Civil War - the result of the development of the burgonet (Fig. 35) - lasted until the end of the 17th century.

In order to get an accurate picture of a complete set of armor, it is necessary to consider some additional accessories necessary for understanding the function of armor and their role in medieval life. These accessories include a helmet, shield, baldric and spurs. So, we will look at how helmets and shields were made, as well as different kinds bandages and spurs.

Rice. 36. a - Swedish helmet with visor, 7th century; from the burial place of the leader in Valsgerd; b - flat top helmet with visor, circa 1190; in - helmet, circa 1250.

Rice. 37. Helmet, circa 1290. The configuration of five parts is shown and how they were connected to each other.

The medieval helmet is often not considered as an integral part of the full protective vestment, which included the chain mail cap or small walnut-shaped helmet, and later the bascinet, armet and sallet. Made from several steel plates riveted together, the helmet served as a large, barrel-like head covering. It all started with a simple helmet with a flat domed part, to which a visor was attached to protect the face. Northern peoples used such helmets with visors as early as the 12th century, but they fell out of use; it happened at the end of the XII century. At the beginning of the 13th century, the helmet already covered the entire head, it was worn for better protection over a small iron cap and chain mail cap. Figure 26 shows an ancient helmet with a visor dating from about 650, a helmet from 1190 and a full helmet from about 1250; figure 37 shows its further evolution, referring to about 1290. In my drawings, I showed how it was riveted from five parts. A helmet of this type, with modifications, was used until the beginning of the 15th century, although it practically ceased to be used in real battles from about 1340; its place was taken by a more comfortable bascinet with a visor, and the old modification was used in duels and tournaments. Helmets of the late 14th and early 15th centuries were similar to those of the 13th century, but their tops were rounded rather than flat. In England, there are several perfectly preserved copies - the helmet of the Black Prince (1372) in Canterbury Cathedral (Fig. 38), the helmet of Henry V (1422) in Westminster Abbey (Fig. 39) and two of the same type in Cobham Church in Kent. These "pots" did not rest on the shoulders. A well-designed and well-cut leather lining held the helmet on the head over the hair, which was then worn long and picked up when wearing a helmet under a small linen cap, a chain mail cap, and sometimes under a small iron cap. Only later, for example, did helmets made after 1420 begin to rest on the shoulders, they were attached to the armor on the chest and back with clasps or bolts. Prior to this, they were fastened with cords (probably braided straps) sewn to the lining in front of the ears and tied at the back of the head. The latter was meant by the heralds when they signaled the beginning of the tournament - in front of the command “laissez aller” it sounded: “tie your helmets”.

Rice. 38. Helm of the Black Prince (Canterbury Cathedral).

Rice. 39. Helmet of Henry V (Westminster Abbey).

Rice. 40. Helmet possibly owned by Henry VII (Westminster Abbey).

After 1420, a special tournament helmet appears. It was, so to speak, a general-purpose variant, such as, for example, the helmet of Henry V, and in its form it received the name "frog helmet". Such can be seen in countless paintings and sculptures after 1420. There are many well-preserved specimens; one of them (although of later origin) is in Westminster Abbey, where it was brought to the funeral of King Henry VII in 1500 (Fig. 40). In the manufacture of these tournament helmets, the craftsmen followed practical principles, namely, a thick, curved front plate, the upper edge of which overlapped the upper plate that covered the cranial vault, completely protecting the eyes. Nevertheless, a warrior could see through the viewing slot if he put his shoulders forward and tilted his head - it was in this position that a clash occurred during tournament spear fights. I know for sure that this position allows you to see well, as I myself tried to do it with the helmet of Henry VII in Westminster Abbey. True, at the very moment of the collision, you need to raise your head, and at that moment you really stop seeing anything, but at the moment of the collision this is no longer important, but the knight was completely safe.

Since prehistoric times, the shape of the shield has undergone numerous and varied changes, but the purpose of its use has never changed. In the Middle Ages, the cavalry shield was the most important type, although there were others - small round shields for foot combat, and at the end of the Middle Ages, long mantles - to protect archers and crossbowmen. The mantlet was similar to the shield of a Roman legionnaire - long, rectangular and concave. The early form of the knight's shield is very aptly described by the term "kite shield".

Rice. 41. Shield styles (1050-1450).

In some cases, the warriors of the Scandinavian peoples used shields similar in shape to a kite until the 12th century, although rarely; usually they used large round shields, both in naval and land battles. For the Scandinavians, fighting on land meant fighting on foot; in the rest of Europe, warriors fought in the old Gothic style - sitting on horseback, and rectangular kite shields began to be used no later than the 9th century. Such a shield continued to be used until the middle of the 12th century (that is, until the end of the Norman period of English history). After that, the shield becomes shorter, and by 1220 even smaller. It now has a straight horizontal top edge. Such shields are shown on two fighting warriors in Figure 7.

Shields always had a concavity corresponding to the contour of the body, although at the end of the 13th century, completely flat small shields were sometimes used. This type of shield lasted until the early 15th century - the shield of Henry V, kept in Westminster Abbey, is a shield of this type - although there is no evidence that it was widely used in battle. In the middle of the XIV century, a shield of a new form appeared, intended mainly for a tournament duel with spears. It had the shape of an irregular rectangle - I beg your pardon for such a geometrically impossible definition, and its concavity was directed outward, not inward. In some shields, closer to the right hand, in the upper edge, a cut was made for a spear taken at the ready (Fig. 41).

Many medieval shields have survived to this day, so we can study them to understand how they could reflect blows inflicted on them on the battlefield and in single combats. From the shields of the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries, one can tell exactly how they were made. The manufacture of any shield was subject to the same principles: they were made from plywood. Best Shields were made from thin wooden plates glued together, and the fibers of each next plate were located at right angles to the direction of the fibers of the previous plate. We used wood with a dense arrangement of fibers - birch or linden. No wonder the ancient Scandinavians and Saxons poetically and allegorically called the shields "the warlinden" (the root linden in the Germanic languages ​​\u200b\u200bis means "linden"; the word can be translated as "linden of war" or "root of war"). The wooden base was covered with leather or parchment from the outside, and a layer of gypsum was applied on top (as a primer for drawing a picture). On the outer side of the shield, the coat of arms or the owner's motto was painted, sometimes this drawing was made in the form of a low relief. The inner surface of the shield was covered with fabric, sometimes with dyed linen, and in some cases (as, for example, the shield of Henry V), the fabric was decorated with artistic embroidery. In the middle of the inner surface was a small rectangular pillow placed in a quilted cover and stuffed with tow, horsehair, and sometimes just hay. The pillow served as a shock absorber, absorbing impact energy and protecting the hand from injury.

A variety of straps were also attached to the inner surface of the shield, the so-called enarms, with which the warrior held the shield. The handles of ancient shields from the Bronze Age to the Viking Age were made in the form of a thick beam, which was riveted to the inside over a large hollow recess in the center of the round shield. This recess protruded from the outside in the form of a bump, leaving behind a cavity where a fist was placed, squeezing the handle. Holding such a shield was the same as holding the lid of a laundry bin by the handle, with the only difference that the shield was flat or had a concavity directed inwards. The Vikings had an additional support for the hand in the form of a belt stretched to the left side of the shield. The Viking passed his hand under this belt - this way it was more reliable to fix the shield with his hand, and it was much more convenient to hold it. Some additional devices of this kind may have been used in the Bronze Age; The Greeks certainly had such adaptations. But since the wooden or leather linings of bronze shields have not survived to this day, that is, the parts to which belts would be attached have not survived, we cannot say how widespread such means of carrying shields were in the Bronze Age.

Enarms of medieval shields consisted of three belts. Their fastening and mutual arrangement could vary significantly, but the principle in each case remained the same: 1) a belt located on the left side of the shield, riveted on both sides so that a muscular forearm in chain mail could pass between it and the shield; 2) the same, but shorter belt, located closer to the right edge of the shield. The wrist was passed under this belt; 3) and, finally, another finger strap was riveted a few inches further, in case the horse's bridle was not held by the fingers. Another important addition was the fourth belt, the so-called guizh, for which the shield was hung from the neck of a warrior. In chronicles and novels, one can often find the expression "with a shield around his neck." When you come across such an expression, think of a guy, and you will immediately imagine what the author had in mind. It's a strap that was actually two pieces, like a camera bag strap. These pieces were interconnected by a buckle, that is, the length of the belt could be adjusted. The ends of the belt were riveted to both upper corners of the shield. It seems that these rivets were inserted before the outer surface of the shield was covered with plaster and finally finished (Fig. 42 and 43).

Rice. 42. The inner side of the shield of the XIII century; a pillow for the hand, enarms and guizh is shown.

Rice. 43. Another mutual arrangement of belts on the inside of the shield of the 13th century.

One often sees shields with embossed coats of arms on graves or on the walls of medieval churches. They are depicted as if the leading belts are hooked onto the pegs from which they hang. Particularly good in this regard are the shields of the barons of Henry III, hanging on the walls of the choirs of the chapels of Westminster Abbey.

Rice. 44. Method of attaching a baldric to a scabbard in the 12th century.

Rice. 45. A later method of attaching the baldric to the scabbard (XIII century).

The sword was never hung from a waist belt tightly wrapped around the knight's waist. From 500 to 900, swords were usually worn on a shoulder strap, with the handle sometimes located at chest level, but this method was suitable only for fighting in chariots or on foot. The cavalryman, on the other hand, was more comfortable if the handle was located lower, especially if he simultaneously used a shield. Therefore, a heavily armed rider of the 10th-15th centuries wore a sword either on a sling that loosely fitted the hips, or on belts hanging from the belt. Until about 1340, the rider wore a baldric made in the form of a wide belt, which held the scabbard on both sides. The belt was wrapped around the scabbard about six inches below its neck, and then the belt was passed over the left thigh, wrapping around the back and right thigh to the valve with a buckle, to which this end of the belt was attached, fastening it to the buckle in front. The flap with a buckle was fastened to the scabbard directly under the neck and directed along the front surface of the abdomen towards the other end of the waist belt. (This way of carrying a sword is shown in figures 44 and 45.) In some European countries - mainly in England, France and Spain - belts were fastened with large buckles. But in Germany, Italy and Scandinavia, the fastening of the sword was simpler: the end of the belt was cut lengthwise into two tails, and there was no buckle on the opposite valve, but on the other hand, two parallel longitudinal slots were cut into it, where the tails were passed, which were then simply tied in a knot (Fig. 45).

Rice. 46. Attaching the baldric to the scabbard at the beginning of the 14th century; with this method, instead of wrapping the scabbard with a belt, locks and rings were used.

With the advent of the "international" style of plate armor in the third quarter of the 14th century, a new method of attaching the baldric to the scabbard also appeared on the medieval scene. The baldric no longer descended diagonally to the left thigh, but was placed horizontally low on the thighs. The sword was hung from the left side in one of two ways. Either a hook on the belt was used to fasten the sword, to which the scabbard was hung by a special ring located on the back edge of the scabbard, or a pair of short belts were used for this, which were fastened to the buckles on the back edge of the scabbard. Most of the baldrics of this type were richly decorated with square or round plates of beautiful jewelry work (Fig. 46 and 47), and each such decoration was connected to its neighbors with the help of loops.

At the beginning of the 15th century - that is, when they abandoned outerwear and began to wear "white" armor sparkling with steel - the sword began to be hung from a narrow baldric that diagonally descended to the left thigh along a steel cape (Fig. 48). Later, in the same century, the sword began to be hung on belt "loops" from the waist belt. These loops were fastened or wound around the scabbard - one near the neck of the scabbard, and the other halfway from the neck to the opposite end. With this method of wearing, the scabbard turned out to be at an angle (sometimes up to forty-five degrees) to the body of the knight, and did not hang vertically, as was the custom from about 1350.

Rice. 47. Baldric of the end of the 14th century, decorated with plaques. They wore such a bandage low on the hips.

Rice. 48. A bandage descending obliquely down the cape to the left thigh.

Rice. 49. Further development of an earlier style, 1450-1480.

Our discussion of medieval armor would be incomplete if we did not say a few words about the spurs of that time; after all, they played an extremely important role not only in ordinary riding, but also in how the knight wore armor while sitting in the saddle. There were two types of medieval spurs - simple "styloid" spurs and spurs with wheels. The first type was the only one in use until about 1270. Greek and Roman spurs were very small, ending in long pyramidal "spikes" and very short shoulders; each shoulder ended with a button or rivet, to which a strap was attached, which was wound around the foot or attached to leather shoes. This type of spur was used in Europe until the 7th-8th centuries, after which the shoulders became much longer; now they covered the entire heel and ran along the sides of the foot, ending anterior to the ankles. A slot was made at the end of each shoulder, a fastening was inserted into it, with which a belt was fixed, passed under the heel and over the top of the foot. By the end of the XTT century, the shoulders of the spurs began to be made figured curved, repeating the outlines of the ankles (Fig. 51 and 52). At the same time, the belts began to be attached to the pins on the lower surface of the outer shoulder. The belt was then passed under the foot, passed through a slot made in the edge of the inner shoulder, passed over the upper part of the foot and fastened to the buckle located on the upper edge of the outer shoulder (Fig. 53).

Rice. fifty. Free sword pendant; Italian style 1460-1510.

The wheel in a spur first appears at the end of the 13th century. At first, the spur wheel was small, had six teeth and was placed at the end of a short “neck”. By the middle of the XIV century, the neck became longer, the teeth were larger and more numerous; in some cases, the wheel of the spur began to look like a daisy flower; wheels with a large (up to 32) number of teeth (Fig. 54) were very popular. At the same time, the spurs were attached to metal greaves, and not to mail stockings - the shoulders connected over the Achilles tendon and diverged from here at a sharper angle than the early spurs. The neck of the spur became even longer towards the end of the 14th century. By about 1420, the average length of the neck of the spur was four inches, and the teeth of the wheels had become quite long. Between 1415 and 1440 - in a relatively short period of time - the shoulders began to form a very deep curvature under the ankles. But after 1440, the masters again returned to the old style spurs, although nevertheless the neck became even longer; for example, by the last quarter of this century, the length of the neck sometimes reached 10 inches.

Rice. 51. Viking spur.

Rice. 52. Spur of the 12th century.

Rice. 53. Early type of spur with wheel, circa 1300.

Rice. 54. Spur with a large wheel; 1330-1360 years.

When people see such long spurs and sharp spikes on wheels, many exclaim: “What terrible suffering the poor horses endured!” But I believe that such sympathy for the long-suffering and, by the way, long-dead animals in this case is completely inappropriate. The teeth of the wheels could not penetrate deep into the skin of the horse, as they were too tightly fitted on the wheel for this. The horse has a very thick skin, and by the time the wheeled spur appeared, most horses were covered with linen blankets before riding. Maybe this is what caused the invention of wheels, although I personally think this reason is unlikely. The exceptional length of the neck was a natural result of the introduction of horse armor in the 15th century; the metal protection of the sides of the animal protruded so high above the body of the horse that it would be impossible to reach the skin with an ordinary short spur. Frankly speaking, it seems to me that the awl-shaped spur, which nothing prevented from piercing the body of an animal, was a more cruel element of the harness than the ominous-looking spurs with wheels; and the short European styloid spurs were a child's toy that tickled the horse, compared to the narrow, about two inches long, styloid spurs of medieval Arabian horsemen.

Rice. 55. The inscription on the picture in Middle English: "How to dress a person in armor so that he can comfortably fight on foot."

Now, after we have taken a look at how knightly armor was made in medieval Europe and how this equipment developed, we need to familiarize ourselves with how it was worn. To make this clear, let's go back to where we started. Let us return to our old acquaintance Kunz Schott von Hellingen, Burgrave of Rothenburg, and see how five hundred years ago he put on fine armor, which still looks the same today as on the day he took it off for the last time.

The first thing that catches the eye in Schott's chambers in Rothenburg Castle is a long table set on a trestle, on which sparkling details of armor are laid out along with a sword, spurs and a short cape (tabard), decorated with Schott's coat of arms - a four-field shield in silver and red colors. . Imagine that Schott himself enters the room, and a small, bare-walled room suddenly comes to life in the presence of this energetic personality. Shott is about thirty-five years old, a powerfully built, tall man; his hard, strong face makes a rather repulsive impression, despite the open and bold look of mocking and cheerful eyes. The look of the hair can be charming: it is long and falls freely over the shoulders. Entering, he puts them under an underarmor cap that looks like a hair net. In 1500, it was fashionable to wear long hair, and this was dictated not only by fashion, but also by purely practical considerations: the hair collected under the cap forms a thick and elastic pillow, an excellent means of absorbing impact energy in addition to the quilted lining of the helmet. Imagine now a young man, one of his squire servants, without whose help Schott would not have been able to put on his armor. The duties of a squire include cleaning and lubricating the armor and maintaining it in working condition.

The clothes in which Schott is dressed indicate that he is ready to put on a combat harness. He wears a long-sleeved shirt that reaches to his hips, long, tight-fitting trousers, and sturdy leather boots. Pieces of chain mail were sewn into the sleeves of the shirt and in the area of ​​the elbows, the trousers were wrapped in woolen cloth in the area of ​​the knees. In addition, he wears chain mail breeches, similar to modern swim shorts. Looking at these clothes, one involuntarily recalls the description of the 15th century “How a man schall be armyd at his ese when he schal fighte on foote” (“How to dress a man in armor so that it is convenient for him to fight on foot”). The described military equipment is equally suitable for equipping a warrior on foot, and for fighting on horseback. The treatise referred to deals with armor intended for peaceful duels, friendly sparring on the grounds, or shanclo, which was a fenced area resembling a boxing ring, where rivals fought on foot. It is very interesting to look at this authentic description of the armor, which I will give in a translation similar to the original version; it is very easy to understand, and I would be sorry to convey it in modern writing. Here is a part of the treatise, which describes the clothes in which Schott is dressed: “He should not have a shirt on, but a doublet of durable linen with a silk lining with numerous holes. The doublet must be of strong weave...and stripes of mail must be sewn to the doublet in the sleeves and in the armholes below them. Thick waxed cords should be woven from thin strong threads, from which a bowstring for a crossbow is made. They must be carefully separated and properly woven. They should also be waxed, and then they will not split and tear. Also a pair of quilted trousers and a pair of short pieces of fine wool to wrap around the knees under his greaves to keep them from chafing the skin. Also a pair of solid and thick cords ... "

What follows is a rather cryptic and obscure instruction on how "three thin cords must be firmly tied to the sole of the shoe ...". Moreover, “to the middle of the foot” it should have been wrapped with a cord like football boots, that is, around the foot and around the ankles. Waxed thick cords fastened the doublet on the shoulders, and the harem pants on the hips. These garters were used to fasten the upper bracers to the shoulders and to secure the cuisse.

Rice. 56. Helmet cap and scarf around the neck.

Squire Shotta takes the right greave from the table. It is not fastened, so the squire easily opens it on hinges, and while the owner puts on the legguards, the squire puts on the greaves on Schott's shins and fastens them on the inside of the shin. Leggings are fixed with small spring pins - one on top, the other on the bottom. Locking the legs automatically puts the knee pads in place over the wool that wraps around the knees so that the knee pads do not rub against the skin when the legs are bent at the knee joint. The squire can only tighten the cords with which the knee pads are fixed in the right places. While the squire deals with the knee pads, his knight places the leg pads on his legs. This is a more elaborate piece of armor than the 14th-century cuisses, as they are now taller and end in three plates, which, overlapping each other at the edges, are attached to the lower, main plate, increasing flexibility as much as possible and protecting the inside of the groin, and outside of the hip area. A convex crest is minted in the upper part of the main plate, which is able to deflect the blow of the tip of any weapon aimed at this place. A small leather valve is riveted to the upper edge of the uppermost plate, above the hip joint, two small holes are made in this valve, through which Schott passes the cords sewn to the trousers and ties the cords in a knot. This attachment holds the legplates in place and reinforces the fixation of the two thongs worn around the thighs, which the squire has just fastened to the buckles. The same procedure is done with the left leg. There are no solerets (sabatons) in Schott's armor, the feet are protected only by shoes made of thick, durable leather. After that, the knight puts on a necklace that covers the neck and upper chest and back. But before putting on the necklace, Schott wraps a scarf around his neck so that the steel collar does not rub his neck (Fig. 56). The necklace is made of two large plates, one front and one back, and six overlapping hooks that form three clasps corresponding to three collars that fit one into the other - this provides protection for the neck up to the ears. The edge of the upper collar is bent outward so that the steel rubs the neck less. If you see a complete necklace, you will probably wonder how you can put it on, but in reality it is very easy to put on; the necklace, as a rule, was arranged in the same way as leggings, that is, it had loops on which it was fastened on the left shoulder, and a lock with a spring that locked the necklace closed around the neck on the right shoulder. Three overlapping collars are also divided into two halves. So when the necklace had to be put on, the lock was opened and this whole piece of armor was opened on hinges. The necklace was put on the left shoulder and fastened around the neck, and then the lock was fastened on the right shoulder. At the same time, the end of the scarf was pulled out over the edge of the collar in front.

When the necklace was properly put on, the knight donned the cuirass. The cuirass of Schott is made a little differently than the earlier cuirasses described in the previous chapter; it has no loops on the left side and no fasteners on the right. The plates of this cuirass are completely separated - these are separate parts of the armor, although the design of the culet and cape has remained the same. The breastplate is equipped with small movable plates inserted into the arm holes; this gives the armor more flexibility and provides better protection than if the main chest plate were enlarged and tried to cover the armpit with it.

The squire gives Schott the breastplate, and he takes the back of the cuirass and puts it on his back, and the knight adjusts the breastplate in place. Its rear edges overlap the lateral front edges of the back of the cuirass, and the rear edges of the cape plates overlap the front edges of the culet. Putting the plates of the cuirass in place, the knight and his squire fasten them with two straps riveted to the shoulder parts of the breastplate using fasteners located on the shoulder parts of the back plate, connecting the two parts of the cuirass. Finally, a belt is tightly fixed around both plates on the belt. Then bracers are put on the hands, following the same method as leg armor is put on. The lower bracer is fastened around the forearm, an elbow pad is placed on the elbow, and the shoulder is covered with an upper bracer. After that, a light small pauldron is fixed on the necklace, and a heavy pauldron above it. Cords sewn to the shoulders of the doublet are passed through small holes in the shoulder pads and tied in a knot.

Rice. 57. Schott von Hellingen's necklace.

Now that the knight has put on most of the armor, you understand why the chain mail strips sewn to the doublet are needed - they protect those parts of the body that were not covered by steel plates. When a warrior sits in the saddle, the space between the two upper legguards is additionally protected by the high pommel of the saddle. For additional protection of the armpits, there are special plates, and these plates are now attached to the necklace by the squire with belts. On the back of these plates are wide leather straps about six inches long. Laces are threaded through the holes made at the ends of these belts, with which the plate is freely suspended from the necklace, additionally covering the sections of the shoulder and armpit protected only by chain mail. With the armpit plates attached, the main process of donning the armor ends, but before continuing with the armor, the knight makes many different movements to make sure that the armor fits and wears comfortably, does not pinch anywhere and nothing dangles anywhere. He swings his arms, raises and lowers his shoulders, bends to the sides, bends and unbends his knees. Everything seems to be in order, the knight bends down so that the squire puts a cape over his head - a short cloak - tabard. This cape is an ordinary rectangular piece of cloth with a hole for the head in the middle. This is a simple cape that covers the chest and back and reaches just below the waist. Tabard was held in place by a sword belt.

Rice. 58. His cuirass.

Rice. 59. Full plate armament of Schott von Hellingen.

Rice. 60. His long sword.

The squire takes gilded spurs from the table, Schott puts his foot on the bench, and the squire attaches the spur to the foot. While the squire is putting on his spur, Schott takes a large sword from the table and draws it from its scabbard; the knight wants to make sure both edges of the blade are (literally) razor-sharp. The sword looks quite heavy; the blade is nearly forty inches long, but in reality it is relatively light, for it weighs no more than four pounds, and the excellent balance and carefully calculated weight of the head make the sword comfortable to use. (We often hear tales about how medieval swords were so heavy that a modern person could not even lift it, and similar fables. This is the same nonsense as the claim that knights had to be saddled with winches .) Satisfied with the sharpness of the weapon, Schott puts it back into its sheath; the squire takes the sword, unwinds the baldric, ties the scabbard with a loop and fastens the baldric to the belt. Now Schott is fully equipped, except for the gauntlets and helmet, which he will put on when he gets on his horse and is ready to ride. He takes mittens from the table, and the squire follows him with a helmet, which is an example of a late salad. The domed part of the helmet almost completely repeats the shape of the head and fits quite tightly to it. The shape of the helmet is not elongated, which was typical for many German salads made in the eighties and nineties of the XV century. Three overlapping small plates are attached to the back of the helmet at the bottom to protect the neck. The front opening is large and corresponds in size to the opening of a 14th-century bascinet; the hole is closed with a large and deep visor, which, rounding downwards, completely covers the chin. Accompanied by a squire, Schott goes out the door and down a narrow spiral staircase. You hear him walking and wonder why the armor doesn't rattle; all their details are perfectly adjusted, and on the move, accompanied by the musical ringing of spurs, they only rustle and tap softly.

Rice. 61. One of his spurs.

From the dark arch of the doors, Schott enters the courtyard of the castle, flooded with bright light, and immediately the armor flashes with an incredible brilliance - polished knee pads and gaiters, elbow pads, shoulder pads and sallet sparkle; the heraldic signs on the tabard, pennant and flags are striking in their diversity. Half of Schott's men are here. They are already on their war horses and ready to ride, waiting only for the appearance of their leader. Now they will go to make a quick raid on the lands of the baron living next door. In front of the door, the groom holds by the bridle a large stallion, a steed more powerful than modern hunting horses. Putting on his mittens, Schott exchanges a few words with his assistant. As he speaks, the leader casts an appraising glance over his men. Then he easily jumps into the saddle, settles comfortably in it and holds out his hand for the helmet. Schott takes it, examines it carefully for a few moments, and then puts it on his head, after straightening the lining and adjusting the cap. Then he buckles his belt under his chin and nods to the groom. He lets go of the bridle and jumps to the side, as the thoroughbred animal proudly tosses its head, snores and dances, then rears up, as thoroughbreds have always done and will do. Then the horse with a quiet gait moves to the gate and is kept from starting into a frisky gallop, only by the iron hand of a skilled rider. Following Schott, a boy of fourteen rides on the same tall and thoroughbred horse (reserve horse), carrying a spear with a red and white pennant. Behind them moves the whole long cavalcade. Bravo horses knock their hooves on the stones, you can hear the sound of weapons and armor, funny jokes, laughter. The cavalcade, accompanied by a booming echo, leaves from under the arch of the gate onto the drawbridge, and we see only the suddenly deserted courtyard of the castle, where only grooms and pigeons remained.

The city of Nuremberg promised a reward of 2,000 guilders for the head of Schott von Hellingen. The period of his activity was the bloodiest in the history of this city. Schott's knights constantly ambushed the Nuremberg soldiers, and few managed to escape alive.

Schott's feud with Nuremberg ended in 1525, and he was given a safe-conduct to pass through the city to the Heilbronner Hof, which, although located inside the perimeter of the city walls, belonged to the Margrave von Ansbach-Bayreuth. Here, during a fatal illness, Schott was visited by some of the famous Nuremberg doctors. Schott died on January 8, 1526. There was a house chapel in the palace, and back in 1757 there was a tablet on which one could read: “In the year 1526, on the first Monday after the holy New Year’s Day, the noble and valiant Konrad (Kunz) Schott, head of Streitburg, died, and his soul is now in the care of God.

Hornburg Castle, over whose possession Schott entered into a dispute with the imperial elector, still stands on the Neckar River, and the leaf of one of the doors is still decorated with his coat of arms (I consider it my pleasant duty to thank Mr. R.T. Gwynn, owner of Schott's armor , for the information provided to me and for the opportunity to personally inspect the armor and get to know them in detail).

The first knights put on armor on their own: they pulled chain mail over their heads and fastened equipment on their backs or on their sides and shoulders. The knight had to put on plate armor, which appeared in the 13th century and became very popular in the 14th century, with the help of a squire. It took a little time, just a few minutes. The armor was worn over a special combat camisole, from the bottom up. In the 14th century, some details were laced to the camisole, but a century later they were connected to each other with belts or clasps.

A book miniature from the middle of the 15th century gives an idea of ​​how a knight dressed for battle.

A medieval manuscript says what kind of costume he should wear under armor:

"He shall wear no shirt other than a doublet of fustin (ffustean) lined with satin with cut holes. The doublet must be sewn firmly; the ties must be fastened at the crook of the arm, front and back. For lacing the mail wedges, the ties must also be sewn on in the crook of the arm and at the armpit. The strings must be made of the fine twine used to make crossbow bowstrings. The strings must have tips for threading through holes. And they must be threaded so that they do not stretch or tear. And it must have a pair stockings (chose) made of worsted fabric. The knees should be wrapped with thin windings to reduce friction of the armor on the legs. He should be dressed in thick shoes with ties sewn to the heel and to the middle of the sole at a distance of three fingers. "

It also describes the order of dressing a knight for a foot duel.

"First you need to put on the plate shoes (sabatons) and tie them to the shoes with small ties that will not tear. Then put on the greaves (greaves) and cuisses (cuisses) of the ringed skirt. Then put on the tassets on the hips. And then the breastplate (breastplate) and backplate, bracers (vambraces) and shoulder pads (rerebraces) And then gloves (gauntlets) Hang his dagger (dagger) on the right, and his short sword on the left on the round ring. - bascinet (bascinet), which is tied to the cuirass on the chest and back so that it is in place.Then his long sword in his right hand, a pennant with the image of St. George or the Virgin in his left to bless him when he goes to the site and on the battlefield.
On the day when the applicant and the defendant are to fight, the defendant must ensure:
Set up a tent on the site
Also an armchair
Also bath
Also five loaves of bread
Also a gallon (4.5 l) of wine
Also a dish(?) of meat or fish
Also a board and a couple of goats to put meat and drink
Also cloth
Also a meat knife
Also a cup to drink from
Also a glass with a prepared drink
Also a dozen ties
Also a hammer, tongs and a small anvil
Also a dozen armor nails (rivets)
Also spear, long sword, short sword and dagger
Also a handkerchief to make a peak on the visor of his bascinet
Also a pennant to carry in the hand while called."

By the middle of the 15th century, plate armor made of wide iron (and steel) plates fitted to the human anatomy became standard for noble chivalry. Several styles of such armor were formed. The most famous are Milanese (Italian) and Gothic (German), just the Gothic attire is shown below.
1. Combat camisole. Waxed laces are sewn to the quilted camisole for fastening various parts armor. Mail inserts provide additional protection.

2. Plate shoe, greave, knee pad and gaiter. To the plate shoe and greave, covering the legs to the knee, a knee pad and a gaiter were fastened.

3. Mail gaiter. The chain mail tunic was tied to the belt and covered the lower part of the body. Such chain mail did not interfere with bending down and sitting down

4. Backrest. The back was worn from bottom to top. Its curved edge deflected blows directed at the waist and thighs. A belt with a buckle was riveted to the front floors of the backrest.

5. Bib. Together, the breastplate and backplate formed a cuirass. They were fastened with a belt and tied on the shoulders.

6. Shoulder pad, elbow pad, bracers and underarm shield. Bracers and elbow pieces were tied with laces through paired holes in the plates. Shoulder pad and axillary shield covered the shoulder and armpit

7. Plate gloves. Sword and dagger. The plates covering the fingers were attached to a leather glove. The straps on the baldric of the sword made it possible to hold the scabbard at the right angle. The dagger hung on the right side.

8. Chin rest. A chin rest protected the lower part of the face, complete with a sallet, a typical German helmet.

9. Spurs and a helmet. Wheel spurs were fastened to the knight's legs, and a helmet with a lining to soften blows was put on his head. The neck strap kept the helmet firmly on the head.

10. Ready for battle!

Chapter 5 HOW THE ARMOR WEARED

Now, after we have taken a look at how knightly armor was made in medieval Europe and how this equipment developed, we need to familiarize ourselves with how it was worn. To make this clear, let's go back to where we started. Let us return to our old acquaintance Kunz Schott von Hellingen, Burgrave of Rothenburg, and see how five hundred years ago he put on fine armor, which still looks the same today as on the day he took it off for the last time.

The first thing that catches the eye in Schott's chambers in Rothenburg Castle is a long table set on a trestle, on which sparkling details of armor are laid out along with a sword, spurs and a short cape (tabard) adorned with Schott's coat of arms - a four-field shield in silver and red colors . Imagine that Schott himself enters the room, and a small, bare-walled room suddenly comes to life in the presence of this energetic personality. Shott is about thirty-five years old, a powerfully built, tall man; his hard, strong face makes a rather repulsive impression, despite the open and bold look of mocking and cheerful eyes. The look of the hair can be charming: it is long and falls freely over the shoulders. Entering, he puts them under an underarmor cap that looks like a hair net. In 1500, it was fashionable to wear long hair, and this was dictated not only by fashion, but also by purely practical considerations: the hair collected under the cap forms a thick and elastic pillow, an excellent means of absorbing impact energy in addition to the quilted lining of the helmet. Imagine now a young man, one of his squire servants, without whose help Schott would not have been able to put on his armor. The duties of a squire include cleaning and lubricating the armor and maintaining it in working condition.

The clothes in which Schott is dressed indicate that he is ready to put on a combat harness. He wears a long-sleeved shirt that reaches to his hips, long, tight-fitting trousers, and sturdy leather boots. Pieces of chain mail were sewn into the sleeves of the shirt and in the area of ​​the elbows, the trousers were wrapped in woolen cloth in the area of ​​the knees. In addition, he wears chain mail breeches, similar to modern swim shorts. Looking at these clothes, one involuntarily recalls the description of the 15th century “How a man schall be armyd at his ese when he schal fighte on foote” (“How to dress a man in armor so that it is convenient for him to fight on foot”). The described military equipment is equally suitable for equipping a warrior on foot, and for fighting on horseback. The treatise referred to deals with armor intended for peaceful duels, friendly sparring on the grounds, or shanclo, which was a fenced area resembling a boxing ring, where rivals fought on foot. It is very interesting to look at this authentic description of the armor, which I will give in a translation similar to the original version; it is very easy to understand, and I would be sorry to convey it in modern writing. Here is a part of the treatise, which describes the clothes in which Schott is dressed: “He should not have a shirt on, but a doublet of durable linen with a silk lining with numerous holes. The doublet must be of strong weave...and stripes of mail must be sewn to the doublet in the sleeves and in the armholes below them. Thick waxed cords should be woven from thin strong threads, from which a bowstring for a crossbow is made. They must be carefully separated and properly woven. They should also be waxed, and then they will not split and tear. Also a pair of quilted trousers and a pair of short pieces of fine wool to wrap around the knees under his greaves to keep them from chafing the skin. Also a pair of solid and thick cords ... "

What follows is a rather cryptic and obscure instruction on how "three thin cords must be firmly tied to the sole of the shoe ...". Moreover, “to the middle of the foot” it should have been wrapped with a cord like football boots, that is, around the foot and around the ankles. Waxed thick cords fastened the doublet on the shoulders, and the harem pants on the hips. These garters were used to fasten the upper bracers to the shoulders and to secure the cuisse.

Squire Shotta takes the right greave from the table. It is not fastened, so the squire easily opens it on hinges, and while the owner puts on the legguards, the squire puts on the greaves on Schott's shins and fastens them on the inside of the shin. Leggings are fixed with small spring pins - one on top, the other on the bottom. Locking the legs automatically puts the knee pads in place over the wool that wraps around the knees so that the knee pads do not rub against the skin when the legs are bent at the knee joint. The squire can only tighten the cords with which the knee pads are fixed in the right places. While the squire deals with the knee pads, his knight places the leg pads on his legs. This is a more elaborate piece of armor than the 14th-century cuisses, as they are now taller and end in three plates, which, overlapping each other at the edges, are attached to the lower, main plate, increasing flexibility as much as possible and protecting the inside of the groin, and outside of the hip area. A convex crest is minted in the upper part of the main plate, which is able to deflect the blow of the tip of any weapon aimed at this place. A small leather valve is riveted to the upper edge of the uppermost plate, above the hip joint, two small holes are made in this valve, through which Schott passes the cords sewn to the trousers and ties the cords in a knot. This attachment holds the legplates in place and reinforces the fixation of the two thongs worn around the thighs, which the squire has just fastened to the buckles. The same procedure is done with the left leg. There are no solerets (sabatons) in Schott's armor, the feet are protected only by shoes made of thick, durable leather. After that, the knight puts on a necklace that covers the neck and upper chest and back. But before putting on the necklace, Schott wraps a scarf around his neck so that the steel collar does not rub his neck (Fig. 56). The necklace is made of two large plates, one front and one back, and six overlapping hooks that form three clasps corresponding to three collars that fit one into the other - this provides protection for the neck up to the ears. The edge of the upper collar is bent outward so that the steel rubs the neck less. If you see a complete necklace, you will probably wonder how you can put it on, but in reality it is very easy to put on; the necklace, as a rule, was arranged in the same way as leggings, that is, it had loops on which it was fastened on the left shoulder, and a lock with a spring that locked the necklace closed around the neck on the right shoulder. Three overlapping collars are also divided into two halves. So when the necklace had to be put on, the lock was opened and this whole piece of armor was opened on hinges. The necklace was put on the left shoulder and fastened around the neck, and then the lock was fastened on the right shoulder. At the same time, the end of the scarf was pulled out over the edge of the collar in front.

When the necklace was properly put on, the knight donned the cuirass. The cuirass of Schott is made a little differently than the earlier cuirasses described in the previous chapter; it has no loops on the left side and no fasteners on the right. The plates of this cuirass are completely separated - these are separate parts of the armor, although the design of the culet and cape has remained the same. The breastplate is equipped with small movable plates inserted into the arm holes; this gives the armor more flexibility and provides better protection than if the main chest plate were enlarged and tried to cover the armpit with it.

The squire gives Schott the breastplate, and he takes the back of the cuirass and puts it on his back, and the knight adjusts the breastplate in place. Its rear edges overlap the lateral front edges of the back of the cuirass, and the rear edges of the cape plates overlap the front edges of the culet. Putting the plates of the cuirass in place, the knight and his squire fasten them with two straps riveted to the shoulder parts of the breastplate using fasteners located on the shoulder parts of the back plate, connecting the two parts of the cuirass. Finally, a belt is tightly fixed around both plates on the belt. Then bracers are put on the hands, following the same method as leg armor is put on. The lower bracer is fastened around the forearm, an elbow pad is placed on the elbow, and the shoulder is covered with an upper bracer. After that, a light small pauldron is fixed on the necklace, and a heavy pauldron above it. Cords sewn to the shoulders of the doublet are passed through small holes in the shoulder pads and tied in a knot.

Now that the knight has put on most of the armor, you understand why the chain mail strips sewn to the doublet are needed - they protect those parts of the body that were not covered by steel plates. When a warrior sits in the saddle, the space between the two upper legguards is additionally protected by the high pommel of the saddle. For additional protection of the armpits, there are special plates, and these plates are now attached to the necklace by the squire with belts. On the back of these plates are wide leather straps about six inches long. Laces are threaded through the holes made at the ends of these belts, with which the plate is freely suspended from the necklace, additionally covering the sections of the shoulder and armpit protected only by chain mail. With the armpit plates attached, the main process of donning the armor ends, but before continuing with the armor, the knight makes many different movements to make sure that the armor fits and wears comfortably, does not pinch anywhere and nothing dangles anywhere. He swings his arms, raises and lowers his shoulders, bends to the sides, bends and unbends his knees. Everything seems to be in order, the knight bends down so that the squire puts a cape over his head - a short cloak - tabard. This cape is an ordinary rectangular piece of cloth with a hole for the head in the middle. This is a simple cape that covers the chest and back and reaches just below the waist. Tabard was held in place by a sword belt.

The squire takes gilded spurs from the table, Schott puts his foot on the bench, and the squire attaches the spur to the foot. While the squire is putting on his spur, Schott takes a large sword from the table and draws it from its scabbard; the knight wants to make sure both edges of the blade are (literally) razor-sharp. The sword looks quite heavy; the blade is nearly forty inches long, but in reality it is relatively light, for it weighs no more than four pounds, and the excellent balance and carefully calculated weight of the head make the sword comfortable to use. (We often hear tales about how medieval swords were so heavy that a modern person could not even lift it, and similar fables. This is the same nonsense as the claim that knights had to be saddled with winches .) Satisfied with the sharpness of the weapon, Schott puts it back into its sheath; the squire takes the sword, unwinds the baldric, ties the scabbard with a loop and fastens the baldric to the belt. Now Schott is fully equipped, except for the gauntlets and helmet, which he will put on when he gets on his horse and is ready to ride. He takes mittens from the table, and the squire follows him with a helmet, which is an example of a late salad. The domed part of the helmet almost completely repeats the shape of the head and fits quite tightly to it. The shape of the helmet is not elongated, which was typical for many German salads made in the eighties and nineties of the XV century. Three overlapping small plates are attached to the back of the helmet at the bottom to protect the neck. The front opening is large and corresponds in size to the opening of a 14th-century bascinet; the hole is closed with a large and deep visor, which, rounding downwards, completely covers the chin. Accompanied by a squire, Schott goes out the door and down a narrow spiral staircase. You hear him walking and wonder why the armor doesn't rattle; all their details are perfectly adjusted, and on the move, accompanied by the musical ringing of spurs, they only rustle and tap softly.

From the dark arch of the doors, Schott enters the courtyard of the castle flooded with bright light, and immediately the armor flashes with an incredible brilliance - polished knee pads and gaiters, elbow pads, shoulder pads and sallet sparkle; the heraldic signs on the tabard, pennant and flags are striking in their diversity. Half of Schott's men are here. They are already on their war horses and ready to ride, waiting only for the appearance of their leader. Now they will go to make a quick raid on the lands of the baron living next door. In front of the door, the groom holds by the bridle a large stallion, a steed more powerful than modern hunting horses. Putting on his mittens, Schott exchanges a few words with his assistant. As he speaks, the leader casts an appraising glance over his men. Then he easily jumps into the saddle, settles comfortably in it and holds out his hand for the helmet. Schott takes it, examines it carefully for a few moments, and then puts it on his head, after straightening the lining and adjusting the cap. Then he buckles his belt under his chin and nods to the groom. He lets go of the bridle and jumps to the side, as the thoroughbred animal proudly tosses its head, snores and dances, then rears up, as thoroughbreds have always done and will do. Then the horse with a quiet gait moves to the gate and is kept from starting into a frisky gallop, only by the iron hand of a skilled rider. Following Schott, a boy of fourteen rides on the same tall and thoroughbred horse (reserve horse), carrying a spear with a red and white pennant. Behind them moves the whole long cavalcade. Bravo horses knock their hooves on the stones, you can hear the sound of weapons and armor, funny jokes, laughter. The cavalcade, accompanied by a booming echo, leaves from under the arch of the gate onto the drawbridge, and we see only the suddenly deserted courtyard of the castle, where only grooms and pigeons remained.