How to mark the building on the map. Conventional signs and designations on geographical maps. In the basin they distinguish

Symbols on a map or plan are a kind of their alphabet, by which they can be read, find out the nature of the area, the presence of certain objects, and evaluate the landscape. As a rule, conventional signs on the map convey common features with geographical objects that exist in reality. The ability to decipher cartographic symbols is indispensable when making hiking trips, especially to distant and unfamiliar areas.

All objects marked on the plan can be measured on the scale of the map in order to represent them actual dimensions. Thus, the symbols on topographic map- this is its "legend", their decoding for the purpose of further orientation in the area. Homogeneous objects are indicated by the same color or stroke.

All the outlines of objects located on the map, according to the method of graphic representation, are divided into several types:

• Areal
• Linear
• Point

The first type consists of objects that occupy a large area on a topographic map, which are expressed by areas enclosed in boundaries in accordance with the scale of the map. These are objects such as lakes, forests, swamps, fields.

Linear designations are outlines in the form of lines, they can be seen on the scale of the map along the length of the object. These are rivers, railways or roads, power lines, clearings, streams, etc.

Dot outlines (off-scale) denote objects of small size that cannot be expressed on the scale of the map. It can be both individual cities and trees, wells, pipes and other small single objects.

Symbols are applied in order to have the most complete picture of the indicated area, but this does not mean that absolutely all the smallest details of a real individual district or city have been identified. The plan indicates only those objects that are of great importance for the national economy, the Ministry of Emergency Situations, as well as military personnel.

Types of symbols on maps

To recognize the signs of the map, you need to be able to decipher them. Conditional symbols are divided into scale, off-scale and explanatory.

• Scale symbols indicate local objects that can be expressed in terms of their size on the scale of a topographic map. Their graphic designation appears as a small dotted line or thin line. The area inside the border is filled with conditional icons that correspond to the presence of real objects in this area. Scale signs on a map or plan can be used to measure the area and dimensions of a real topographic object, as well as its outlines.
• Out-of-scale symbols indicate objects that cannot be displayed on the scale of the plan, the size of which cannot be judged. These are some separate buildings, wells, towers, pipes, kilometer posts and so on. Out-of-scale symbols do not indicate the dimensions of an object located on the plan, so it is difficult to determine the actual width, length of a pipe, elevator, or a free-standing tree. The purpose of off-scale markings is to accurately indicate a particular object, which is always important when navigating when traveling in unfamiliar terrain. The exact indication of the location of the indicated objects is carried out by the main point of the symbol: it can be the center or the lower middle point of the figure, the top of the right angle, the lower center of the figure, the axis of the symbol.
• Explanatory signs serve to disclose information about scale and off-scale designations. They give an additional characteristic to objects located on a plan or map, for example, indicating the direction of the river flow with arrows, designating the type of forest with special signs, the carrying capacity of the bridge, the nature of the road surface, the thickness and height of the trees in the forest.

In addition, topographic plans place other designations on themselves that serve as an additional characteristic for some of the indicated objects:

• Signatures

Some signatures are used in full, others are abbreviated. The names of settlements, the names of rivers, lakes are fully deciphered. Abbreviated labels are used to indicate more detailed characteristics of some objects.

• Numerical symbols

They are used to indicate the width and length of rivers, roads and railways, transmission lines, the height of points above sea level, the depth of fords, etc. The standard designation of the map scale is always the same and depends only on the size of this scale (for example, 1:1000, 1:100, 1:25000, etc.).

In order to make it as easy as possible to navigate on a map or plan, the symbols are indicated by different colors. To distinguish even the smallest objects, more than twenty different shades are used, from intensely colored areas to less bright ones. To make the map easy to read, at the bottom of it is a table with a decoding of color designations. So, usually water bodies are indicated in blue, blue, turquoise; forest objects in green; terrain - brown; city ​​blocks and small settlements - gray-olive; highways and highways in orange; state borders– purple, neutral area – black. Moreover, blocks with fire-resistant buildings and structures are marked in orange, and blocks with non-fire-resistant structures and improved dirt roads - in yellow.

The unified system of symbols for maps and terrain plans is based on the following provisions:

• Each graphic sign always corresponds to a certain type or phenomenon.
• Each sign has its own clear pattern.
• If the map and plan differ in scale, the objects will not differ in their designation. The difference will only be in their size.
• Drawings of real terrain objects usually indicate an associative connection with it, therefore they reproduce the profile or appearance of these objects.

To establish an associative connection between a sign and an object, there are 10 types of formation of compositions:

Topic 8. CARTOGRAPHIC SYMBOLS

8.1. CLASSIFICATION OF CONVENTIONAL SIGNS

On maps and plans, the image of terrain objects (situations) is presented in cartographic symbols. Cartographic symbols - symbolic graphic symbols used to depict various objects and phenomena on maps, their qualitative and quantitative characteristics.Conventional signs sometimes also called "map legend".
For ease of reading and memorization, many conventional signs have styles that resemble the view of the local objects depicted by them from above or from the side. For example, conventional signs of factories, oil rigs, isolated trees, bridges are similar in shape to appearance listed local items.
Cartographic symbols are usually divided into large-scale (contour), off-scale and explanatory (Fig. 8.1). In some textbooks, linear conventional signs are singled out as a separate group.

Rice. 8.1. Symbol types

large-scale (contour) signs are called conventional signs used to fill in the areas of objects expressed on the scale of a plan or map. According to a plan or map, it is possible to determine with the help of such a sign not only the location of the object, but its size and shape.
The boundaries of areal objects on the plan can be depicted with solid lines of different colors: black (buildings and structures, fences, roads, etc.), blue (reservoirs, rivers, lakes), brown (natural landforms), light pink (streets and area in settlements), etc. The dotted line is used for the boundaries of agricultural and natural lands of the area, the boundaries of embankments and cuts near roads. The boundaries of clearings, tunnels and some structures are indicated by a simple dotted line. The fill characters inside the outline are arranged in a certain order.
Linear symbols(a kind of scale conventional signs) are used when depicting objects of a linear nature - roads, power lines, borders, etc. The location and planned outline of the axis of a linear object are depicted accurately on the map, but their width is greatly exaggerated. For example, the symbol of a highway on maps at a scale of 1:100,000 exaggerates its width by 8 to 10 times.
If an object on a plan (map) cannot be expressed by a scale symbol due to its smallness, then off-scale symbol, for example, a landmark, a separately growing tree, a kilometer post, etc. The exact position of an object on the ground is shown main point off-scale symbol. The main point is:

• for signs of a symmetrical shape - in the center of the figure (Fig. 8.2);
• for signs with a wide base - in the middle of the base (Fig. 8.3);
• for signs that have a base in the form of a right angle - at the top of the corner (Fig. 8.4);
• for signs that are a combination of several figures - in the center of the lower figure (Fig. 8.5).

Rice. 8.2. Symmetrical signs
1 - points of the geodetic network; 2 - points of the survey network, fixed on the ground by centers; 3 - astronomical points; 4 - churches; 5 - plants, factories and mills without pipes; 6 - power plants; 7 - water mills and sawmills; 8 - fuel depots and gas tanks; 9 - mines and adits operating; 10 - oil and gas wells without rigs

Rice. 8.3. Signs with a wide base
1 - factory and factory pipes; 2 - waste heaps; 3 - telegraph and radiotelegraph offices and departments, telephone exchanges; 4 - meteorological stations; 5 - semaphores and traffic lights; 6 - monuments, monuments, mass graves, tours and stone pillars over 1 m high; 7 - Buddhist monasteries; 8 - separately lying stones

Rice. 8.4. Signs having a base in the form of a right angle
1 - wind turbines; 2 - gas stations and filling stations; 3 - windmills; 4 - permanent river signaling signs;
5 - free-standing deciduous trees; 6 - free-standing coniferous trees

Rice. 8.5. Signs that are a combination of several figures
1 - plants, factories and mills with pipes; 2 - transformer boxes; 3 - radio stations and television centers; 4 - oil and gas rigs; 5 - tower-type structures; 6 - chapels; 7 - mosques; 8 - radio masts and television masts; 9 - kilns for burning lime and charcoal; 10 - mazars, suborgans (religious buildings)

Objects, expressed by off-scale conventional signs, serve as good landmarks on the ground.
Explanatory symbols (Fig. 8.6, 8.7) are used in combination with large-scale and off-scale; they serve to additionally characterize local objects and their varieties. For example, the image of a coniferous or deciduous tree in combination with a symbol of a forest shows the dominant tree species in it, an arrow on a river indicates the direction of its flow, transverse strokes on a symbol of a railway show the number of tracks.

Rice. 8.6. Explanatory conventional signs of the bridge, highway, river

Rice. 8.7. Stand characteristics
In the numerator of the fraction - the average height of the trees in meters, in the denominator - the average thickness of the trunks, to the right of the fraction - the average distance between the trees

The maps contain signatures of their own names of settlements, rivers, lakes, mountains, forests and other objects, as well as explanatory signatures in the form of letters and numbers. They allow you to get additional information about the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of local objects and relief. Letter explanatory signatures are most often given in abbreviated form according to the established list of conditional abbreviations.
For a more visual depiction of the terrain on maps, each group of conventional signs relating to the same type of terrain elements (vegetation cover, hydrography, relief, etc.) is printed with ink of a certain color.

8.2. CONVENTIONAL SIGNS OF LOCAL ITEMS

Settlements on topographic maps at a scale of 1:25,000 - 1:100,000 they show everything (Fig. 8.8). Next to the image of the settlement, its name is signed: cities - in capital letters of a direct font, and a settlement of a rural type - in lowercase letters of a smaller font. Under the name of a rural-type settlement, the number of houses (if known) is indicated, and if there are district and village councils in them, their abbreviated signature (PC, CC).
The names of urban and suburban settlements are printed on the maps in italic capital letters. When depicting settlements on maps, their external outlines and the nature of the layout are preserved, the main and through passages, industrial enterprises, prominent buildings and other buildings that are important as landmarks are distinguished.
Wide streets and squares depicted on the scale of the map are shown with large-scale conventional signs in accordance with their actual size and configuration, other streets are shown with conventional off-scale signs, the main (main) streets are highlighted on the map with a wider gap.

Rice. 8.8. Settlements

Settlements are depicted in the most detail on maps at a scale of 1:25,000 and 1:50,000. Quarters with predominantly fire-resistant and non-fire-resistant buildings are painted over with the appropriate color. Buildings located on the outskirts of settlements are shown, as a rule, all.
On a map of scale 1: 100,000, the image of all main streets, industrial facilities and the most important objects of landmark value is mainly preserved. Separate buildings within blocks are shown only in settlements with very sparse buildings, for example, in dacha-type settlements.
When depicting all other settlements, the buildings are combined into quarters and filled with black paint, the fire resistance of buildings on the map 1:100,000 is not highlighted.
Selected local items Landmarks that matter are mapped most accurately. Such local items include various towers and towers, mines and adits, wind turbines, churches and separately located buildings, radio masts, monuments, individual trees, barrows, remnant rocks, etc. All of them, as a rule, are depicted on maps conventional off-scale signs, and some are accompanied by abbreviated explanatory captions. For example, the signature check ug. with the sign of the mine means that the mine is hard coal.

Rice. 8.9. Selected local items

Road network on topographic maps is depicted in full and in detail. Railways show everything on maps and are divided according to the number of tracks (one-, two- and three-track), gauge (normal and narrow gauge) and condition (operating, under construction and dismantled). Electrified railways. The number of tracks is indicated by dashes perpendicular to the axis of the conventional sign of the road: three dashes - three-track, two - double-track, one - single-track.
On the railways, stations, sidings, platforms, depots, wayposts and booths, embankments, excavations, bridges, tunnels, semaphores and other structures are shown. Own names of the station (sidings, platforms) are signed next to their conventional signs. If the station is located in a settlement or near it and has the same name as it, then its signature is not given, but the name of this settlement is underlined. The black rectangle inside the station symbol indicates the location of the station relative to the tracks: if the rectangle is in the middle, then the tracks pass on both sides of the station.

Rice. 8.10. Railway stations and facilities

Conventional signs of platforms, checkpoints, booths and tunnels are accompanied by the corresponding abbreviated signatures ( sq., bl. n., B, tun.). Next to the conventional sign of the tunnel, in addition, its numerical characteristic is placed in the form of a fraction, in the numerator of which the height and width are indicated, and in the denominator - the length of the tunnel in meters.
Highway and ground roads when depicted on maps, they are divided into paved and unpaved roads. Paved roads include freeways, improved highways, highways, and improved dirt roads. Topographic maps show all paved roads available in the area. The width and material of the pavement of motorways and highways are signed directly on their conventional signs. For example, on the highway the signature 8(12)A means: 8 - width of the covered part of the road in meters; 12 - width of the road from ditch to ditch; BUT- coating material (asphalt). On improved dirt roads, only the width of the road from ditch to ditch is usually given. Freeways, improved highways, and highways are highlighted in orange on maps, improved dirt roads - in yellow or orange.

Figure 8.11. Highways and dirt roads

Topographic maps show unsurfaced (country), field and forest roads, caravan routes, trails and winter roads. In the presence of a dense network of roads of a higher class, some secondary roads (field, forest, dirt) on maps at a scale of 1:200,000, 1:100,000, and sometimes 1:50,000 may not be shown.
Sections of dirt roads passing through wetlands, lined with bundles of brushwood (fascines) on wooden beds and then covered with a layer of earth or sand, are called fascinated road sections. If on such sections of the road, instead of fascines, a flooring of logs (poles) or simply an embankment of earth (stones) is made, then they are called gats and rowings, respectively. Fashin sections of roads, gati and rowing on the maps are indicated by dashes perpendicular to the conventional sign of the road.
On highways and dirt roads, bridges, pipes, embankments, excavations, tree plantings, kilometer posts and passes (in mountainous areas) are shown.
Bridges they are depicted on maps with conventional signs of various shapes depending on the material (metal, reinforced concrete, stone and wood); at the same time, two-tier, as well as drawbridges and drawbridges are distinguished. Bridges on floating supports are distinguished by a special symbol. Next to the conventional signs of bridges having a length of 3 m or more and located on roads (except for motorways and improved highways), they sign their numerical characteristics in the form of a fraction, the numerator of which indicates the length and width of the bridge in meters, and the denominator - the carrying capacity in tons. Before the fraction indicate the material from which the bridge is built, as well as the height of the bridge above the water level in meters (on navigable rivers). For example, the signature next to the symbol of the bridge (Fig. 8.12) means that the bridge is stone (construction material), in the numerator - the length and width of the roadway in meters, in the denominator - the carrying capacity in tons.

Rice. 8.12. Overpass over the railroad

When designating bridges on freeways and improved highways, only their length and width are given. The characteristics of bridges with a length of less than 3 m are not given.

8.3. HYDROGRAPHY (WATER BODIES)

Topographic maps show the coastal part of the seas, lakes, rivers, canals (ditches), streams, wells, springs, ponds and other bodies of water. Their names are signed next to them. The larger the scale of the map, the more detailed the water bodies are depicted.
Lakes, ponds and other bodies of water are shown on maps if their area is 1 mm2 or more on the scale of the map. Reservoirs of smaller sizes are shown only in arid and desert regions, as well as in cases where they have the value of reliable landmarks.

Rice. 8.13. Hydrography

Rivers, streams, canals and main ditches topographic maps show everything. At the same time, it was found that on maps of scales 1:25,000 and 1:50,000, rivers up to 5 m wide, and on maps of a scale of 1:100,000 - up to 10 m, are indicated by one line, wider rivers - by two lines. Channels and ditches with a width of 3 m or more are depicted with two lines, with a width of less than 3 m - with one.
The width and depth of the rivers (channels) in meters are signed as a fraction: in the numerator - the width, in the denominator - the depth and nature of the bottom soil. Such signatures are placed in several places along the river (channel).
River speed (m/s), depicted by two lines, indicate in the middle of the arrow showing the direction of the flow. On rivers and lakes, they also sign the height of the water level in low water in relation to sea level (marks of water edges).
On the rivers and canals they show dams, gateways, ferries (transportation), fords and give corresponding characteristics.
Wells are indicated by blue circles, next to which the letter is placed To or signature art. to. (artesian well).
Ground water pipelines show solid blue lines with dots (through 8 mm), and underground - broken lines.
To make it easier to find and select sources of water supply in the steppe and desert regions on the map, the main wells are distinguished by a larger symbol. In addition, if there is data to the left of the symbol of the well, an explanatory signature of the ground level mark is given, to the right - the depth of the well in meters and the filling rate in liters per hour.

8.4. SOIL AND VEGETATION COVER

Soil -vegetable cover are usually depicted on maps with large-scale symbols. These include conventional signs of forests, shrubs, gardens, parks, meadows, marshes and salt marshes, as well as conventional signs depicting the nature of the soil cover: sands, rocky surface, pebbles, etc. When designating the soil and vegetation cover, a combination of conditional signs. For example, in order to show a swampy meadow with bushes, the contour is the area occupied by the meadow, inside which the symbols of the swamp, meadow and bushes are placed.
The contours of areas covered with forests, shrubs, as well as the contours of swamps, meadows are indicated on the maps by a dotted line. If a linear local object (ditch, fence, road) serves as the boundary of a forest, garden or other area, then in this case the symbol of a linear local object replaces the dotted line.
Forest, shrubs. The forest area inside the contour is painted over with green paint. The tree species is shown with a deciduous, coniferous tree icon, or a combination of both when the forest is mixed. If there is data on the height, thickness of trees and density of the forest, its characteristics are indicated with explanatory signatures and numbers. For example, the signature indicates that coniferous trees (pine) predominate in this forest, their average height is 25 m, the average thickness is 30 cm, the average distance between tree trunks is 4 m. When depicted on the map, clearings indicate their width in meters.

Rice. 8.14. The woods

Rice. 8.15. shrubs

Rice. 8.16. swamps

The depth of difficult and impenetrable swamps is signed next to the vertical arrow indicating the location of the sounding. Impenetrable and impassable swamps are shown on the maps with the same symbol.
Salt marshes on the maps they are shown by vertical shading in blue with their division into passable (broken shading) and impassable (solid shading).

On topographic maps, as their scale decreases, homogeneous topographic symbols are combined into groups, the latter - into one generalized symbol, etc. In general, the system of these designations can be represented as a truncated pyramid, at the base of which are signs for topographic plans at a scale of 1:500, and at the top - for survey topographic maps at a scale of 1:1,000,000.

8.5. COLORS OF TOPOGRAPHIC SYMBOLS

Colors topographic symbols are the same for maps of all scales. Line marks of lands and their contours, buildings, structures, local objects, strongholds and boundaries are printed when publishing black color, relief elements - brown; reservoirs, streams, swamps and glaciers - blue(mirror of water - light blue); areas of tree and shrub vegetation - green(dwarf forests, elfins, shrubs, vineyards in light green), fire-resistant neighborhoods and highways in orange, non-fire-resistant neighborhoods and improved dirt roads in yellow.
Along with topographic symbols for topographic maps, conditional abbreviations of own names political and administrative units (for example, Lugansk region - Lug.) and explanatory terms (for example, power plant - el.-st., southwestern - SW, worker's settlement - r. p.).

8.6. CARTOGRAPHIC FONTS USED ON TOPOGRAPHIC PLANS AND MAPS

A font is a graphic style of letters and numbers. Fonts that are used on topographic pianos and maps are called cartographic.

Depending on a number of graphic features, cartographic fonts are divided into groups:
- according to the slope of the letters - straight (ordinary) and italic with slopes to the right and left;
- according to the width of the letters - narrow, normal and wide;
- by lightness - light, bold and bold;
- by the presence of undercuts.

On topographic maps and plans, two types of basic fonts are mainly used: topographic and skeleton italics (Fig. 8.17).

Rice. 8.17. Core fonts and cursive numerals

Topographic (hairline) font T-132 is used to sign rural-type settlements. It is drawn with a line thickness of 0.1-0.15 mm, all elements of the letters are thin hair lines.
Base italic finds application in the design of topographic maps, agricultural maps, land management pianos, etc. On topographic maps, explanatory signatures and characteristics are made in italics: astronomical points, ruins, factories, factories, stations, etc. The design of the letters has a pronounced oval shape . The thickness of all elements is the same: 0.1 - 0.2 mm.
Computational Font or cursive letters of numbers, belongs to the group of cursive fonts. It was designed for entries in field journals and computational sheets, since in geodesy many processes of field and cameral work were associated with recording the results of instrumental measurements and their mathematical processing (see Fig. 8.17).
Modern Computer techologies provide a wide, virtually unlimited choice of fonts different kind, size, pattern and slope.

8.7. SIGNS ON TOPOGRAPHIC PLANS AND MAP

In addition to conventional symbols, topographic plans and maps have various inscriptions. They constitute an important element of the content, explain the depicted objects, indicate their qualitative and quantitative characteristics, and serve to obtain reference information.

According to their meaning, the inscriptions are:

• own names of geographical objects (cities, rivers, lakes
  and etc.);
• part of a conventional sign (garden, arable land);
• conventional signs and own names at the same time (signatures of the names of cities, objects of hydrography, relief);
• explanatory captions (lake, mountain, etc.);
• explanatory text (transfer information about the distinctive features of objects, specify their nature and purpose) (Fig. 8.18).

The inscriptions on the cards are made in different fonts, differing in the pattern of letters. Up to 15 different fonts can be used on maps. The pattern of the letters of each font has elements that are unique to this font, which is based on knowledge of the features of various fonts.
Certain fonts are used for groups of related objects. For example, roman fonts are used for city names, italic fonts for names of hydrographic objects, etc. Each inscription on the map should be well read.
In the arrangement of inscriptions of their own names there are distinctive features. The names of settlements are located on the right side of the contour parallel to the northern or southern side of the map frame. This position is most desirable, but not always feasible. The names should not cover the images of other objects and fit in the map frame, so it is necessary to place the names to the left, above and below the contour of the settlement.

Rice. 8.18. Examples of inscriptions on maps

The names of areal objects are placed inside the contours, so that the signature is evenly distributed over the entire area of ​​the object. The name of the river is placed parallel to its channel. Depending on the width of the river, the inscription is placed inside or outside the outline. It is customary to sign large rivers several times: at the source, at characteristic bends, at the confluence of rivers, etc. When one river flows into another, the inscriptions of the names are placed so that there is no doubt about the name of the rivers. Before the confluence, the main river and tributary are signed, after the confluence, the name of the main river is required.
When arranging inscriptions located not horizontally, special attention is paid to their readability. The following rule is followed: if the elongated contour along which the inscription is to be placed is located from northwest to southeast, then the inscription is placed from top to bottom; if the contour stretches from northeast to southwest, then the inscription is placed from bottom to top.
The names of the seas and large lakes are placed inside the contour of the basins along a smooth curve, in the direction of their length and symmetrically to the shores. The inscriptions of small lakes are placed as inscriptions of settlements.
The names of the mountains are placed, if possible, to the right of the top of the mountains and parallel to the southern or northern frame. The names of mountain ranges, sand formations and deserts are signed in the direction of their length.
Explanatory inscriptions are placed parallel to the north side of the frame.
Numerical characteristics are arranged depending on the nature of the information they transmit. The number of houses in rural-type settlements, elevations of the earth's surface and water lines are signed parallel to the northern or southern side of the frame. The speed of the river flow, the width of the roads and the material of their coating are located along the axis of the object.
Labels should be placed in the least loaded places cartographic image so that there is no doubt about which object they refer to. The inscriptions should not cross the confluence of rivers, the characteristic details of the relief, images of objects that have the value of landmarks.

Basic rules for constructing cartographic fonts: http://www.topogis.ru/oppks.html

Questions and tasks for self-control

1. What are conventional signs?
2. What types of symbols do you know?
3. What objects are depicted on maps with large-scale symbols?
4. What objects are depicted on maps with off-scale symbols?
5. What is the purpose of the main point of the off-scale symbol?
6. Where is the main point located on the out-of-scale symbol?
7. What is the purpose of color schemes?
8. What is the purpose of using explanatory labels and numbers on maps?

LIST OF CONDITIONAL ABBREVIATIONS USED ON TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS

BUT
Asphalt, asphalt concrete (road surface material)
ed. car factory
alb. alabaster plant
eng. hangar
anil. aniline paint factory
JSC Autonomous Region
apat. apatite mining
are. ditches (canal or ditch in Central Asia)
art. k. artesian well
arch. archipelago
asb. asbestos plant, quarry, mine
ASSR Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic
aster. astronomical point
asph. asphalt plant
aird. aerodrome
airp. the airport

B
B cobblestone (road surface material)
b., ball. beam
B., Bol. Big, th. -th, -th (part of own name)
bar. barrack
bass. swimming pool
ber. birch (forest species)
Bet. concrete (dam material)
biol. Art. biological station
bl.-p. checkpoint (railway)
Bol. swamp
BR paving stones (road surface material)
br. ford
br. could. mass grave
b. tr. transformer booth
bulg. bulgunnyakh (a separate mound of natural formation)
boom. paper industry (factory, plant)
Boer. drilling rig, well
boo. bay

AT
In viscous (river bottom soil) (hydrography)
vag. car repair, car building plant
vdkch. water tower
vdp. waterfall
vdpr. Art. waterworks
vdkhr. reservoir
Vel. Great, -th, -th, -th (part of own name)
vet. veterinary station
wines winery, distillery
wkz. railway station
Volk. volcano
water. water tower
High Vyselki (part of own name)

G
Gravel (road surface material)
woof harbor
gas. gas plant, gas rig, well
gasg. gas holder (large gas tank)
gal. haberdashery industry (plant, factory)
pebble gravel (mining product)
Gar. garage
hydrol. Art. hydrological station
Ch. Chief (part of own name)
clay clay (mining product)
clay. alumina refinery
beagle pottery factory
mountains hot spring
gost. hotel
proh. mountain pass
dirty mud volcano
Fuels and lubricants fuels and lubricants (warehouse)
sol. bitter-salty water (in lakes, springs, wells)
Mrs. hospital
hydroelectric power plant

D
D wooden (material of the bridge, dam)
dv. yard
det. e. orphanage
jute. jute plant
D. O. holiday home
home building house-building plant, plant of ancient. woodworking industry (plant, factory)
ancient corner charcoal(roasting product)
firewood. wood storage
trembling yeast plant

E
ep. erik (narrow deep channel connecting the riverbed with a small lake)

AND
Reinforced concrete reinforced concrete (material of a bridge, dam)
wish. ferruginous source, iron ore mining site,
iron processing plant,
yellow-sour ferric source

Zap. Western, -th, -th, -th (part of own name)
app. zapan (backwater, river bay)
orders reserve
backfill covered well
zat. backwater (a bay on a river used for wintering and repairing ships)
animal Fur farm, nursery
Land earth (dam material)
ground dugout
mirror mirror factory
grains. grain farm
winter wintering, wintering
angry gold (mine, deposit)
golden-plat. gold-platinum developments

And
games. toy factory
Izv. lime quarry, lime (calcined product)
emerald emerald mines
inst. institute
claim. portage artificial fiber (factory)
ist. source

To
K rocky (river bottom soil), chipped stone (road surface material), stone (bridge, dam material)
K., k. well
kaz. barracks
kam. quarry, stone
stone-shot stone crushing plant
kam. stb. stone pillar
kam. corner hard coal (mining product)
can. channel
rope. rope factory.
kaol. kaolin (mining product), kaolin processing plant
karakul. karakul state farm
quarantine. quarantine
rubber rubber plant, rubber plantation
ceramics. ceramic factory
kin. cinematographic industry (factory, plant)
brick brickworks
Cl clinker (road pavement material)
clh. collective farm
leather tannery
coke. coking plant
amp. compound feed plant
compress. Art. compressor station
con. horse-breeding state farm, stud farm
cond. confectionery factory
cannabis cannabis state farm
cons. canning factory
boiler basin
Koch. nomad camp
kosh. koshara
Cr., Red. Red, -th, -th, -th (part of own name
crepe. fortress
croup. cereal plant, cereal mill
godfather joss-house
chickens. resort

L
lag. lagoon
lacquer paint and varnish factory
A lion. Left, -th, -th, -th (part of own name)
forestry forester's house
forester forestry
lesp. sawmill
years. flyer, flyer
to lay down. clinic
LZS forest protection station
lim. firth
foliage. larch (forest species)
flax flax processing plant

M
M metal (bridge material)
m. Cape
poppy. pasta factory
M., Mal. Small, -th, -th, -th (part of own name)
margar. margarine factory
maslob. oil mill
maslod. butter factory
mash. machine building plant
furniture furniture factory
medep. copper smelter, plant
copper copper developments
met. metallurgical plant, metal products factory
met.-arr. metalworking plant
met. Art. meteorological station
fur. fur factory
MZHS machine and livestock station
min. mineral spring
MMS machine-reclamation station
could. grave, graves
they say dairy plant
mol.-meat. dairy and meat farm
mon. monastery
mram. marble (mining product)
MTM machine and tractor workshop
MTF dairy farm
music instr. musical instruments (factory)
torment. flour mill
soap. soap factory

H
obs. observation tower
fill well filling
nat. env. national district
invalid inactive
oil oil production, oil refinery, oil storage, oil rig
Lower Lower, -ya, -her, -ie (part of own name)
nism. lowland
Nick. nickel (mining product)
New New, -th, -th, -th (part of own name)

O
o., islands island, islands
oaz. oasis
observ. observatory
ovr. ravine
sheep sheep farm
refractory refractory products (factory)
lake lake
Oct. October, -th, -th, -e (part of own name)
op. greenhouse
rest. n. stopping point (railway)
otd. svh. state farm branch
OTF sheep farm
willingly hunting hut

P
P sandy (river bottom soil), arable land
p., pos. village
mem. monument
steam. ferry
parf. perfume and cosmetics factory
pass. apiary
per. pass (mountain), transportation
dog. sand (mining product)
caves cave
beer brewery
Pete. nursery
food conc. food concentrates (factory)
sq. platform (railway)
plastic plastics (factory)
boards. platinum (mining product)
tribal breeding livestock farm
fruits. fruit-growing state farm
fruit horticultural state farm
fruit.-yag. fruit and berry farm
peninsula
burial stop frontier outpost
burial kmd. border commandant's office
loading loading and unloading area
pl. fire tower (depot, barn)
polygraph printing industry (plant, factory)
floor. Art. field camp
since. threshold, thresholds
settlement sq. landing site
fast. dv. inn
pr. pond, strait, passage (under the overpass)
Right. Right, -th, -th, -th (part of own name)
adj. jetty
prov. provinces
wire wire mill
arch. duct
strand spinning mill
PS Settlement Council
PTF poultry farm
put. n. way post

R
glad. radio factory
radiost. radio station
once. siding
development ruins
res. destroyed
res. rubber products (plant, factory)
rice. rice farm
R. n. worker's settlement
PC District Council (RC - district center)
ores mine
hands sleeve
fish. fishery (plant, factory)
fish. settlement fishing village

FROM
dignity sanatoriums
cap. barn
sugar sugar factory
sugar cane. sugar cane (plantation)
NE North-East
Holy Saint, -th, -th, -th (part of own name)
St. over
beetroot sugar beet farm
pig pig farm
lead lead mine
svh. state farm
Sev. Northern, -th, -th, -th (part of own name)
sat down Art. breeding station
seed. seed farm
chamois. sulfur spring, sulfur mine
NW North-West
forces. silo tower
silica. silicate industry (plant, factory)
sk. rock, rocks
skip. turpentine plant
skl. stock
slate shale development
pitches. tar plant
Owls. Soviet, -th, -th, -e (part of own name)
soybean soybean state farm
Sol. salt water, salt pans, salt mines, mines
sop. hill
grade. Art. Sort Facility
saved. Art. rescue station
speech. match factory
Wed, Wed. Medium, -ya, -her, -ye (part of own name)
SS Selsovet (center of a rural settlement)
St., Star. Old, -an, -oe, -s (part of own name)
herd. stadium
became. Steel Plant
mill. camp, camp
stb. pillar
glass Glass factory
Art. pumping transfer station
building under construction
building materials factory
STF pig farm
court. shipyard, shipyard
bitches cloth factory
dry dry well
dry dryer
s.-x. agricultural
s.-x. mash. agricultural engineering (factory)

T
T solid (river bottom soil)
tab. tobacco-growing state farm, tobacco factory
there. customs
text. textile industry (combine, factory)
ter. waste heap (dump of waste rock near mines)
tech. technical College
comrade Art. goods station
tol. tolevy plant
peat. peat developments
tract. tractor plant
trick. knitting factory
tun. tunnel
CHP combined heat and power plant

At
corner brown coal, stone (mining product)
coal - sour carbonic source
Ukrainian strengthening
ur. tract
ug. gorge

F
f. fort
fact. trading post (trading settlement)
fan. plywood factory
farf. porcelain and earthenware factory
fer. farm
fz. fanza
firn. firn field (snow field of granular snow in high mountain areas)
phosph. phosphate mine
ft. the fountain

X
x., hut. farm
hut. hut
chem. Chemical plant
chem.-farm. chemical pharmaceutical plant
bread bakery
clap. cotton-growing state farm, cotton gin
cold. fridge
ridge ridge
chromium. chrome mine
crunch. crystal plant

C
C cement concrete (road surface material)
C., Center. Central, th, th, th (part of own name)
color. non-ferrous metallurgy (factory)
cement. cement factory
teas. tea-growing state farm
chayn. tea factory
h met. ferrous metallurgy (factory)
chug iron foundry

W
check mine
shiv. Shivera (rapids on the rivers of Siberia)
cipher. slate plant
school school
Slag slag (road surface material)
line Gateway
sword twine factory
PCS. gallery

SCH
Shch crushed stone (road surface material)
gap alkaline spring

E
elev. elevator
email subst. electrical substation
el.-st. power station
email -techn. electrical plant
ef.-oil. essential oil crops state farm, plant for the processing of essential oils

YU
SE Southeast
South Southern, -th, -th, -th (part of own name)
SW Southwestern
legal yurt

I
Yag. berry garden

Selected local items

Factory and factory pipes	Plants, factories and mills with chimneys, expressed (1) or not expressed (2) at the scale of the map	Petrol stations and gas stations
Oil and gas rigs	Mines and adits operating	Mines and galleries are inactive
Tower-type capital structures	Light towers	power plants
Transformer booths	Points of the state geodetic network	Aerodromes and hydroaerodromes
Water mills and sawmills	Windmills	wind turbines
Plants, factories and mills without chimneys: 1) expressed on a map scale; 2) not expressed in the scale of the map.	Radio stations and television centers	Radio and television masts
Fuel depots and gas tanks	Separate trees that have the value of landmarks: 1) coniferous; 2) deciduous	Individual groves of significant landmarks
Narrow strips of forest and protective afforestation	Narrow strips of shrubs and hedges	Individual bushes
Communication lines	Mounds, height in meters	Rocks-outliers
Power lines on metal or reinforced concrete poles	Pits, depth in meters	Clusters of stones
Power lines on wooden poles	Weather stations	Separately lying stones, height in meters
Ground oil pipelines and pumping stations	Open pit mining sites	Peat mining
Underground oil pipelines	Churches	Monuments, monuments, mass graves
Stone, brick walls	Dams and artificial ramparts	Foresters' houses

Roads

Three-track railways, semaphores and traffic lights, turntables	Highway: 5 is the width of the covered part, 8 is the width of the entire road from ditch to ditch in meters, B is the coating material
Double track railways and stations	Improved dirt roads (8-way width in meters)
Single track railways, sidings, platforms and stopping points	dirt roads
Electrified railways: 1) three-track; 2) double-track; 3) single track	Field and forest roads
Narrow gauge railways and stations on them	hiking trails
Freeways, embankments	Fashinny sections of roads, gati and rowing
Improved highways, cuts	Crossings: 1) under the railway; 2) over the railway; 3) on the same level

Hydrography

Small rivers and streams	The banks are steep: 1) without a beach; 2) with a beach that does not end at the scale of the map
Canals and ditches	Lakes: 1) fresh; 2) salty; 3) bitter-salty
Wooden bridges Bridges metal Bridges made of stone and reinforced concrete	Bridge characteristics: K-material of the building (K-stone, M-metal, reinforced concrete concrete, D-wooden); 8-height above water level (on navigable rivers); 370 - bridge length, 10 is the width of the carriageway in meters; 60-capacity per ton
Water level marks Arrows showing the direction of the flow of rivers (0.2 is the speed of the flow in m / s.)	Characteristics of rivers and canals: 170-width, 1.7-depth in meters, P-character of the bottom soil piers Brody: 1.2-depth, 180-length in meters, T-character of the soil, 0.5-flow rate in m / s.
Dams: K-material of the structure, 250-length, 8-width of the dam along the top in meters; in the numerator - the mark of the upper water level, in the denominator - the lower	Gateways Ferries: 195-river width, 4x3-ferry dimensions in meters, 8-capacity in meters
Surface water pipelines	Wells
Underground water pipelines	Sources (keys, springs)
Main wells	Reservoirs not expressed at map scale

Relief

Horizontals: 1) main thickened, 2) main; 3) additional; 4) auxiliary; 5) slope direction indicators
Height marks	Rocks and cliffs
Landmark elevations	Landslides
Cliffs, ravines and gullies	Scree

Vegetation cover and soils

The woods: conifers (spruce, fir, pine, cedar, larch, etc.) deciduous (oak, beech, maple, birch, aspen, etc.) mixed	Solid shrubs: deciduous
rare forests	meadow vegetation
cut down forests	Swamps: 1) impassable and difficult to pass, 2) passable
Forest growth and young plantings	Sands: 1) even, 2) bumpy
orchards

Settlements

Cities
Villages of rural type
Neighborhoods dominated by fire-resistant buildings	Outstanding fire resistant buildings
Neighborhoods dominated by non-fire resistant buildings	Residential and non-residential buildings
Separate yards

Conditional abbreviations,
used on topographic maps

Determining the sides of the horizon

In the absence of a compass or in areas of magnetic anomalies where the compass can give erroneous readings, the sides of the horizon can be determined by celestial bodies: during the day - by the Sun, and at night - by the Polar Star or the Moon.

In the Northern Hemisphere, the Sun is approximately at 7:00 in the east, at 13:00 in the south, and at 19:00 in the west.

The North Star is always in the north. At night, in a cloudless sky, it is easy to find it by the constellation Ursa Major. Through the two extreme stars of the Big Dipper, you need to mentally draw a straight line (Fig. 14) and put a segment on it five times equal to the distance between the extreme stars. The end of the fifth segment will indicate the position of the North Star, which is located in the constellation Ursa Minor (the final star of the small bucket).

The North Star can serve as a reliable reference point for maintaining the direction of movement, since its position in the sky practically does not change over time. The accuracy of determining the direction of the North Star is 2-3 degrees.

According to the Moon, the sides of the horizon are determined more accurately when its entire disk is visible (full moon). The table shows the sides of the horizon on which the Moon is in various phases:

Determining the sides of the horizon on the basis of local objects. If there is no compass and no heavenly bodies are visible, then the sides of the horizon can be determined by signs of local objects:
- moss or lichen covers tree trunks, stones and stumps on the north side; if moss grows along the entire trunk of a tree, then on the north side, especially at the root, there is more of it;
- the bark of trees on the north side is usually coarser and darker than on the south side;
- in spring, the grass on the northern outskirts of forest glades and glades, as well as on the southern side of individual trees, stumps, large stones grows thicker;
- anthills, as a rule, are located south of the nearest trees and stumps; the south side of the anthill is flatter than the north;
- on the southern slopes in spring the snow melts faster than on the northern slopes.

There are other signs by which you can determine the sides of the horizon. For example, clearings in forests are usually cut in the north-south and east-west directions.

Determining the length of a route

To determine the length of the route on the map, a compass or a special device called a curvimeter is used, which is designed to measure winding and long lines. The device has a wheel, which is connected by a gear system with an arrow. When measuring the distance with a curvimeter, you need to set its arrow to zero division, and then roll the wheel along the route. The resulting reading in centimeters is multiplied by the scale value and the distance on the ground is obtained.

When determining the length of the route on the map, it should be taken into account that the distances measured on the map are in most cases shorter than the actual distances. This is explained not only by the presence of descents and ascents on the roads, but also by some generalization of the meanders of the roads on the maps. Therefore, the result of measuring the length of the route obtained from the map should be multiplied by the coefficient indicated in the table, taking into account the nature of the terrain and the scale of the map.