A short course of lectures in geography

Textbook for grade 5

In preparing the textbook, the suggestions and recommendations of the teachers-geographers of the experimental schools were used:

Under the editorship of the candidate of geographical sciences I.P.Galay

Minsk, 2000

TO STUDENTS

Rules for working with the study guide

In geography lessons, while preparing homework, in addition to the textbook, you need to have a geography atlas and a set of contour maps for the 5th grade, a compass, a checkered notebook, colored pencils, compasses, and an elastic band.

Work at home on the paragraphs of the study guide in the following order:

Read the text.

Retell each part of the paragraph and then the entire paragraph.

Reading the text, find on the map all the geographical objects mentioned in it.

Answer the questions and do the tasks after each paragraph.

Write down in the dictionary all the words highlighted in the text of the paragraph (for example, geography) and remember how they are written.

If you don't understand any of the terms found in the text, refer to the concise dictionary of geographical concepts and terms (at the end of the tutorial).

Introduction &1. What does geography study

We remember: What do you know about our planet from the courses "Universe" or "Natural History"? Why is it warm in some parts of the world and cold in others? Why does it rain?

Keywords:geography, natural conditions, population, economy, nature protection.1. Geography as a science.G e o gr a ph i n- a science that studies the natural conditions of the earth's surface, the population of the Earth and its economic activity. This science is one of the most ancient.

Geography in translation from Greek means land description (in Greek “ge” - Earth, “grapho” - I write, describe).

* The name "geography" was first used by Eratosthenes before the beginning of our era in the book "Geography". It considered the shape and size of the Earth, oceans, land, climate, described individual countries, the history of geography .

For a long time (until the end of the 18th century), the main task of geography was the discovery and description of new lands, countries, peoples, the elimination of white spots on the geographical map. The names of the discoverers and explorers - brave and courageous people - are imprinted in geographical names on the map.

The first geographers were travelers and navigators. They discovered new lands, countries, peoples, continents, islands, oceans, seas, bays, mountains, plains, rivers and lakes, made maps showing travel routes and new lands, described natural conditions, life and occupations of the population. The routes of their travels and expeditions passed through sultry deserts and cold glaciers, in sky-high mountains, along swift rivers and stormy ocean waters.

** People learned about the most ancient travels not only from descriptions, but also from fragments of papyrus or a fragment of a clay tablet with signs printed on them.

Geographers have uncovered and continue to uncover many of the mysteries of nature. Thanks to their research and observations, we can already answer many questions. For example: why is it raining or wind blowing? In what areas of the Earth should one look for coal, oil or other minerals? But nature is still fraught with many mysteries, which geographers are working to solve together with other scientists.

Geography is divided into two major parts: physical and economic. Physical geography studies the nature of the surface of the globe; economic geography - the population, its economic activity, the patterns of distribution of the population and the economy.

2. Significance of geography. Descriptive geography was in the past. Now the main task of geography is to study the diversity of nature, population, its economic activity and explain their development and distribution.

Modern geography finds out the causes of processes and phenomena occurring on the surface the globe, and patterns of their change. One of the most important tasks of geography is the forecast of the development of phenomena. Since the nature of the Earth began to change extremely rapidly, it is necessary to foresee those changes in the environment that can occur as a result of human economic activity.

Any development of the territory and construction does not begin without a preliminary study of the area. So, when building a hydroelectric power station on a river, it is necessary to determine where to build a dam, to study what rocks the banks of the river are made of, what area after the construction of the dam will be flooded with water.

For example, a project was proposed for the construction of a very large hydroelectric power station on the Ob River, which flows through the West Siberian Plain. But, when this project was comprehensively considered by geographers, it turned out that as a result of the construction of a hydroelectric dam, a huge reservoir was formed, which would flood a significant part of the plain. Swamps are formed around the reservoir, which will lead to a change in the local climate and other adverse changes in nature. This project was not accepted.

3. Geography and nature protection. Geography provides answers to the questions of how best to use the wealth of nature, what to do so that nature does not become impoverished, so that forests do not disappear, fertile soils do not run out, rivers do not run dry, how to restore and transform nature in the interests of man and nature itself.

The need for rational use and protection of soils, subsoil, air and water basins is constantly emphasized in state documents of our country. It is necessary to strengthen the comprehensive research of nature for the purpose of rational management.

Features of nature, population and economy of many parts of the earth's surface are still insufficiently studied. It is not always possible for people to predict how nature will change as a result of their impact on it. Therefore, geographers continue to explore the surface of the Earth. They participate in various expeditions on land and in the oceans, conduct long-term observations at scientific stations.

1. What is called geography? 2. What two parts is geography divided into? 3. What does physical geography study? Economical geography? 4. What is the significance of geographical science?

INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER.

Image of the USSR on the map.
1) Look at the cool map of the USSR and find Moscow, Leningrad and your city on it; show the Volga, the Dnieper and the Caspian and Black seas.
2) What scale is your cool map made in? How many times the USSR is reduced on it? Measure the distances from your city to Moscow and Vladivostok. On what scale is the map drawn to page 1?
Since our USSR is very large, we have to reduce it very much on the maps. So, on steppe maps it is usually reduced by several million times. The stretch of the USSR from west to east is enormous. A passenger leaving Moscow on a fast train on Monday and traveling eastwards does not arrive in Vladivostok until next week on Thursday.
A TASK. Calculate how many kilometers a day a fast train travels, knowing that the distance from Moscow to Vladivostok according to railway- 9,330 km.
To show the direction from west to east on the map of the USSR, you need to find on the map a line called a parallel, and draw along it from left to right; These lines, i.e., parallels, have the form of arcs on the map of the USSR and are parallel to each other.
From south to north, the Naga Union spread not so widely, but more and more in this direction, its length is more than 3 '/a thousand km. The direction from north to south on the map can be determined by the meridians (midday lines); on the map of the USSR, the meridians usually look like straight lines that converge to the north and diverge to the south.
3) Find on your cool map parallels: 50th, 60th and 70th, as well as meridians: 30th, 100th and 160th.
4) Show the direction from west to east in different parts of the map (on the right side of the map, in the middle part and on the left side).
5) Show the direction from north to south in the same places on the map.
6) Measure the length of the USSR on the map along the 60th parallel and along the 70th meridian.
Image of the USSR on the globe.
1) Find the USSR on a cool globe and circle its borders with chalk.
2) How many times is it reduced on the globe of the USSR? Measure its length on the globe with a thread and compare it with a cool map.
3) What is the difference between the image of the USSR on the globe and its image on the map?
The surface of the USSR on the map is flat and even, while the surface of the USSR on the globe is convex. The map of the USSR has edges, the surface of the globe has no edges; therefore, on the globe it is easy to see all the countries and seas that are outside the USSR: for example, we see that the Pacific Ocean is located to the east of the Union and that North America lies further behind it.
Unlike a map, parallels on a globe look like closed circles.
4) Track on the globe what is south, west and north of the USSR.
5) Find parallels on the globe: 50th, 60th and 70th.

Earth.
1) Make several towers out of wax and stick them to the globe on the 50th parallel in different parts of the USSR; note their position relative to each other.
2) Make some boats out of wax and stick them to a globe at the 50th parallel on the oceans.
According to the globe, it turns out that if you go from any city directly to the east and move without turning, you can return to that same city from the west, bypassing the earth around. And indeed, if we set off from Moscow to the east, reach the Pacific Ocean, board a steamer there and sail even further east across the Pacific Ocean, then after three weeks of sailing we will reach the shores of North America. Continuing our journey even further to the east, we can cross North America in a fast train in four days and reach the Atlantic Ocean. Through this ocean, continuing our journey again to the east, we can cross this ocean in a high-speed ship in six days and reach the shores of Western Europe, and in three days arrive by rail again to Moscow. Thus, we are able to make trip around the world, i.e. go around the earth around.
Similar journeys can be made in other directions around the earth; and thousands of people do circle the earth in various ways every year.
* The first trip around the world was made 400 years ago by Magellan. This navigator equipped five sailing ships (there were no steamboats then) and set off from the coast of Europe to the southwest to go around America, which was discovered by Columbus shortly before Magellan. Only a year later, Magellan circled America from the south and entered the vast ocean, along which he sailed for a long time in calm weather; so he named this ocean the Pacific. Thanks to fair winds, Magellan crossed the Pacific Ocean in four months and landed on the islands, which he called the Philippine. Here Magellan died, and the further journey was ended by his companions: they crossed the Indian Ocean, rounded Africa from the south and returned to the shores of Europe. This journey lasted more than three years; of the five ships, on which there were 260 sailors, only one returned with 16 sailors. See Magellan's route on the map page 8.

Traveling around the world proves that the earth has the same shape as a globe.
Indeed, the earth is a huge sphere surrounded on all sides by air. Wherever we go, we see the sky above our heads; people living on opposite sides of the earth have their heads turned in opposite directions.
Dimensions of the globe. Color the air shell blue.
* Although the globe is very large, its bulge can still be seen both at sea and on land.
Expansion of the horizon when raised up. From an airplane, the horizon opens wider than from the top of a mountain. Paint the wider horizon one color and the narrower horizon another.
The ship, leaving into the distance, disappears gradually: first, the lower part of the ship (its hull) disappears (as if behind a water hump), then the middle part (pipes and sails) and, finally, the upper part (masts and steamship smoke); this phenomenon is noticed in all seas and in all directions, wherever the ship goes. When the ship approaches, it also appears gradually: first its smoke is shown, then the masts, etc.
Since people are very small, they can immediately see only a small part of the earth's surface. But the horizon expands if a person climbs a tower, a mountain, or takes to the air in an airplane.
3) Explain with a drawing why the ship is visible further from a high bank than from a low one?
4) Find a place with a wide horizon.
The rotation of the earth about its axis.
1) Stick wax figures of people to your globe along the 60th parallel and along the 30th meridian and light a candle in front of the globe; draw the illuminated side of it and the unlit side.
2) Turn the globe from left to right about the axis and notice when morning, noon and evening will come for your figures.
The globe rotates about its axis, making a complete revolution per day, that is, in 24 hours. From this rotation comes day and night, * as the earth turns now one of its sides towards the sun, then the other. The imaginary line around which the earth revolves is called the axis, and its ends are called the poles, North and South.
Dvizkenne it is absolutely even, and therefore people living on earth, dviekeniya, do not notice this at all. It seems to people that the sun and moon move above the earth, going across the sky from east to west; in fact, it is the earth that turns from west to east.
Together with the entire earth, the entire USSR also rotates about the earth's axis; while the eastern parts of our Union, located by the Pacific Ocean, go ahead, and there, first of all, the sun rises. And since the clock is set according to the sun (at noon they should show twelve), they go differently in different places. So, for example, when it is 12 noon in Vladivostok, it is only 5 am in Leningrad. When it's 12 noon in Leningrad, it's 7 pm in Vladivostok.
3) Recall the times during your trips when you did not notice your movement.
4) Where does it get earlier than noon: in Moscow or in your city?
The degree is on the globe and on the map of the hemispheres.
1) Draw a circle on a black globe with chalk at an equal distance from both poles (equator); draw parallels 30 and 60, north of the equator and south of it. Rice. on page 7.)
2) Draw the zero meridian on the black globe with chalk, as well as the 30th, 60th, 90th, 120th and 150th.
When the earth rotates about the axis, each point on the globe (except for the poles) describes a circumference. There are a lot of these circles, and all of them are called parallels (they are parallel to each other). One of them - that which passes at an equal distance from both poles - is called the equator. The parallel that is 30 degrees from the equator is called the 30th, and the one that is 60 degrees from the equator is called the 60th. Leningrad is located on the 60th parallel (north of the equator). The equator is over 40,000 km long, and the 60th parallel is half the length of the equator. Meridians (midday lines) are drawn from pole to pole; all points located on the same meridian have noon at the same time. The meridians are also counted in degrees from the initial meridian, which is usually carried out through Greenwich (a suburb of the city of London).
This account is kept east of Gripich and west of it. The 30th meridian east of Gripich passes near Leningrad.
If we know on which parallel and on which meridian the city is located, then it will not be difficult for us to plot it on a globe or on a map.
On the map of the hemispheres, the degree network is drawn in the form of two circles;
of these, the right circle serves for the Eastern Hemisphere, and the left one for the Western. Since the map is flat, the image on the second degree network is not quite correct (compared to the globe).
Meridians and parallels. Place an approximate point of your city and designate its latitude and longitude.
3) Draw in a notebook a degree network through 30 ° and designate Leningrad and your city on it.
4) Determine on the globe on which meridians and parallels the extreme points of the USSR are located.
5) Consider the degree network on your map of the hemispheres, find the equator and the prime meridian, find the numbers on the meridians and parallels.
6) What distinguishes a degree network on a map from a degree network on a globe?
7) Show on the globe and on the map which ways you can sail from Europe to India.
In order to explore the surface of the globe and map the continents, islands, seas, oceans, etc., people had to make numerous and difficult journeys.
* First of all, they began in the Mediterranean many centuries before our time. In the eastern part of this sea, on the shores of the Balkan Peninsula and on the islands adjacent to it, lived the Greeks, who, before other Europeans, learned to sail the sea, first on rowboats, and then on sailboats. The Greeks were engaged in trade and explored all the shores of the Mediterranean Sea; to the south they sailed to Egypt, to the west to the Strait of Gibraltar, to the east they went to the Black and Azov Seas.
They put all these coasts on a map, on which they also marked the neighboring countries that they had heard about, eastward as far as India.
The first great journeys from Europe to the east were made only in the XIII century. It was the Italian Marco Polo who crossed the entire mainland of Asia on horseback and reached China with a trading purpose; he lived there for 17 years and returned by another route, rounding Indo-China and Hindustan on a ship to the Persian Gulf, and through Asia Minor he returned home to the Apennine Peninsula. See the path of M. Polo on the map of the hemispheres.
Marco Polo wrote a book in which he depicted the countries he saw in vivid colors, and greatly exaggerated the wealth of China, the Sunda Islands and India. This book was of great importance: European navigators began to strive to reach these rich countries by sea, and in 1492 the Italian Columbus, convinced that the earth was a ball, headed to the shores of East Asia by the western sea route, hoping to go around the earth. But on his way he met an unknown land - it was America.
Five years after Columbus, the Portuguese navigator Vasco ds Gama, wishing to find a sea route to India, set off from the coast of the same Iberian Peninsula to the south, on four sailing ships. Sailing along the coast of Africa, he rounded it from the south and sailed through the Indian oxap to the western coast of India. Thanks to this voyage, the sea route from Europe to India was opened and the outline of Africa was defined.
At the beginning of the 14th century (27 years after Columbus), the first round-the-world trip of M a g s l l a and a was made. Thanks to this journey, Europeans learned the outline of South America and the extent of the Pacific Ocean (see pages 4 - 5 and the map on page 8).
After these great discoveries, Europeans began to sail all the seas of the globe and discover more and more new lands; at the same time, they started trade with the inhabitants of the discovered countries, and then they seized these countries themselves. Among these navigators, the Englishman Cook made especially great voyages, traveling the length and breadth of the Pacific Ocean and discovering first New Zealand and then Australia on it. During his last journey, Cook died in the Hawaiian Islands: he was killed and eaten by savages.
Of the other great journeys, the polar ones, made to discover the poles, North and South, were especially difficult.
Both of these poles are among very cold countries, where both land and sea are covered with eternal snow and ice. Navigation in the North Polar Sea is very dangerous: many ships were crushed there by floating ice and crushed, many travelers died there from cold and disease (especially scurvy).
At the end of the last century, the Norwegian scientist Nansen managed to make big Adventure along the North Polar Sea, and both he and his ship remained unharmed.
His ship "Fram" was built in such a way that it was afraid of floating ice and, with their pressure, only rose upwards. On this ship, Nansen reached the New Siberian Islands and from there headed north, hoping that the sea current would carry his ship, along with the ice, to the very Pole. For a year and a half, the ship moved slowly among the ice,
in general, but towards the north, but then the ice went to the west. Then Nansen left the ship and, on Siberian sled dogs, headed for the Pole together with Comrade Pogansep. But the path turned out to be very difficult, as the ice floes were heaped into hummocks (hills). Nansen walked north for five weeks and crossed the 86th parallel, but then both the dogs and the people became completely exhausted, and there were still 400 km to the pole. Since Nansen did not know where his ship was, he directed his way to the land of Franz Josef, to which he traveled more than 500 kilometers across the Arctic Ocean, eating the meat of polar bears and walruses. On the land of Franz Josef, the travelers spent the winter, lying in a den and wrapped in fur tags, and in the spring of 1896 they met with an English polar expedition, which delivered them to their homeland.
A week later, their ship "Fram" also returned, which was freed from the ice vice with the help of gunpowder.
Only in the 20th century did the American traveler Pi-ri manage to reach the North Pole on dogs, and it turned out that this pole was located in the middle of an ice-covered sea; and soon after that the Norwegian traveler Amundsen reached and South Pole.
Amundsen set off from Europe on the Fram Nansen ship, circled America from the south and, having reached the edge of the South Polar Land, landed there on the ice and spent the winter, and in the spring of October on 4 sledges pulled by dogs (each sleigh was harnessed to 13 dogs), - moved to the South Pole. Having traveled more than 1,200 km, first along an icy plain, and then along high mountains covered with snow and glaciers, Amundsen reached the South Pole, which turned out to be lying on a plateau 3 km above sea level. Amundsen then returned safely to his ship, but on the same road (on which he
Map of the northern polar countries. Paths of Nansen, Pierp and Amundsen. Color each path in a special color.
pitchfork snow milestones). At the same time, another polar traveler, Englishman Scott, also reached the South Pole (one month later than Amundsen), but on the way back he was caught in snow storms and died along with his comrades.
Finally, quite recently, in 1927, Amundson made a journey on an airship (airship) across the entire North Polar Sea, and he managed to fly right over the North Pole.
Already in 1926, Amundsen tried to reach this pole on two hydroplanes, but on the way one of them deteriorated, and Amundsen had to descend into a hole in the ice, from where, only with great difficulty, after a month of work, he managed to take off and return back.
In 1927, the airship "Norway" built in Italy flew to Leningrad and from there made a flight to Svalbard (in two days). Then Amundsen and the technicians and scientists who accompanied him boarded the airship. In one day they flew over the icy desert for 1,000 km and reached the pole; they made a short stop over it, without descending onto the ice, and then flew to the shores of America; there they fell into a dense fog, among which they wandered for a long time; at the same time, the airship was covered with a thick ice crust and became so heavy that it was difficult to fly. But still, Amundsen managed to fly near the Bering Strait and then safely descend to the ground.
Russian travelers also worked hard on the study of different countries. Russian Cossacks were the first of the Europeans to explore North Asia, and they traveled either by boat along the rivers, or on horseback, or on deer and sled dogs. One of the Cossacks - Dezhnev - in the XYII century went on a boat to the North Polar Sea and rounded the eastern tip of Asia (Cape Dezhnev) on it.
The Russian navigator Bering under Peter I traveled from Leningrad by land (first on horseback by sledge, then on boats along the rivers, then on horseback and deer) to the Pacific Ocean, then built a ship and explored the shores of Asia and America on it; he discovered the strait separating these parts of the world (the Bering Strait). In addition, Bering equipped an expedition to explore all the northern coasts of Asia. One of his employees, navigator Chelyuskin, reached the northern tip of Asia (Cape Chelyuskin) in winter on dogs. Bering himself, during his voyages, died of starvation and schynga on the island, which is named after him.
In the 19th century, Russian travelers made great expeditions to Central Asia. Special merit belongs to Przhevalsky, who made four great journeys on horseback through the deserts and mountains of Central Asia.
* Miklukho-Maoai (Ukrainian), who studied the life of savages on the island of New Guinea, stands apart from all travelers. Without any weapons, he landed on this island and lived among the cannibal savages for a year and a half; studied their language and way of life, collected rich collections, and many times was in danger of being killed and eaten.
At present, our travelers continue their work of exploring different countries. So, recently our Soviet expedition under the command of Kozlov (a student of Przhevalsky) made a long journey through Mongolia. Other expeditions explore the shores of the Arctic Ocean.
Continents and oceans (according to the globe and the map of the hemispheres).
1) Learn to show on the globe and on the map Europe, Asia, Africa, America, Australia and the South Polar Land.
2) Name and show on the map and on the globe each of the oceans.
In the Eastern Hemisphere there is a huge Eastern continent, which is divided into three parts of the world: Europe, Asia and Africa. Europe is separated from Asia by the Ural Mountains, the Caspian Sea and the Caucasus Mountains. Africa is connected to Asia by the Isthmus of Sues, through which the Sues Canal was dug in the last century. Nearby islands belong to each of these parts of the world; thus, the islands of Great Britain, Ireland, Iceland, Novaya Zemlya and others belong to Europe; to Asia - Ceylon, the Malay Archipelago (consisting of the Sunda and Philippine Islands), the Japanese Islands and others; to Africa - Madagascar. The eastern mainland, together with the islands, is called the Old World, since it has been known to Europeans since time immemorial.
In the Western Hemisphere lies the Western Continent or America, which has become known to Europeans only since the time of Columbus; therefore America is also called the New World. It consists of North America and South America, connected by the Isthmus of Panama; The Panama Canal was dug through this isthmus in the 20th century. Large islands belong to America: Greenland, New Foundland, Antilles and others.
South of the equator is another part of the world - Australia, to which the islands belong: New Guinea. New Zealand and many small islands scattered in the Pacific Ocean (all these islands are collectively called Oceania).
Finally, at the South Pole, one sixth of the world is located - the South Polar Land or Antarctica.
Of the oceans, the most extensive is the Pacific or Great, but larger than all land. It lies between Asia and Australia on one side, and America on the other; off the coast of Asia, it forms a whole series of seas, cutting through all the eastern shores.
The Indian Ocean, washing India (Hindostan), is widely connected to the Pacific Ocean; off the southern coast of Asia, this ocean forms large bays; one of these bays (the Red Sea) is connected by the Sues Canal to the Mediterranean Sea.
The third ocean is the Atlantic; it is located between Europe and Africa on one side, and America on the other; the seas belong to it: the Mediterranean and the Black, the North and the Baltic; the seas of the Atlantic Ocean strongly cut the coast of Europe. Off the coast of America, the Atlantic Ocean forms several bays, for example, the Gulf of Mexico.
The North Polar Sea, also called the Arctic Ocean, is widely connected to the Atlantic Ocean. The North Polar Sea is connected by the Bering Strait to the Pacific Ocean.
All oceans are interconnected and form one world ocean, which occupies more than two thirds of the entire surface of the globe.
3) Color all the oceans and seas blue on the blank map. Label the oceans, put numbers on the seas, and explain those numbers on the side of the map.
4) Color all continents and islands yellow; label the parts of the world, put the numbers on the islands and peninsulas and explain these numbers on the side of the map.
5) Find on the map of the hemispheres rivers and mountains in Europe, Asia, Africa and America,
6) In what parts of the world is the USSR located? What oceans and seas is it washed by?

Movement of the earth around the sun
1) Put the globe in front of the candles in the position indicated in the figure on page 4 to the left (a), and then put it in position b (on the right side); determine in which position our Union will be illuminated more strongly and in which weaker (while rotating the globe around the axis).
2) Why is the sun warmer here in summer than in winter?
In summer it is hot in our USSR, especially in its southern regions, where the sun rises very high at noon (it happens almost directly overhead); only in the far North, on the coasts of the Arctic Ocean, summer is cool, since the sun never rises high above the horizon there.
Winter in our USSR is cold, so that the ground is covered with snow everywhere. But on the southern outskirts of the USSR
winters are short and mild; in the middle lane, and especially in the far north, winters are severe (with frosts over 40°C) and very long; the sun in winter is low at noon, and north of the Arctic Circle there is a polar night, when the sun does not appear at all for many days.
All this is due to the movement of the Earth around the Sun. Namely, the Earth, rotating about its axis, at the same time moves around the Sun, making a complete revolution in one year (36 5 74 days). During this movement, the earth's axis always remains in one and the same slope, namely, all the time this axis is directed towards the Polar Star; and since the axis is worth
Movement of the Moon around the Earth and the Earth around the Sun. Color Solascho,
Earth and Moon in three different colors.
obliquely, then in summer the rays of the Sun heat the Northern Hemisphere more strongly, and in winter, on the contrary, the Southern Hemisphere.
When it is winter in the Northern Hemisphere, it is summer in the Southern Hemisphere; When it's summer in the Northern Hemisphere, it's winter in the Southern Hemisphere. (See drawing on page 4.)
The sun is a huge, hot ball, exceeding the Earth a million times too much. The Earth is at a distance of 150 million kilometers from the Sun. The Moon is the Earth's satellite; it is much closer to us than the sun and revolves around the earth, making one revolution in 28 days. In size, it is far inferior even to the Earth (50 times smaller) and shines not with its own light, but with reflected sunlight.
3) Why does the Luke seem to be the same size as the Sun?
4) Why does the Moon change its apparent forms?
climatic zones.
1) Look at the drawing on page 4 (e) and determine where the sun's rays fall more directly and where more obliquely.
2) Find the tropics and polar circles on the map of the hemispheres.
The sun warms most strongly at the equator, where it stands very high at noon in all seasons of the year and heats very strongly; sometimes the sun is there directly overhead (at its zenith). There
the weather is hot all year round, and snow falls only on the highest mountains. Thus, along the equator, a hot or tropical belt stretches around the whole earth; its borders are the tropics - North and South.
Beyond the tropics to the north and south are the temperate zones, where the sun is not so high anymore (it is never directly
climatic zones. Paint over the hot belt with the HEAD). There are different
in one color, moderate belts in another color and tea four times
cold - in the third.
of the year. The temperate zones extend from the tropics to the polar circles, which are 66V2° from the equator.
Beyond the polar circles at both poles there are cold zones - northern and southern, where winter lasts for more than six months; there vast expanses are covered with eternal snow and ice.
In winter there is a long polar night, which lasts half a year at the very poles; in summer there is a long polar day, when the sun does not set at all and circles over the horizon; but this sun heats very little, since its rays fall obliquely on the earth.
3) Draw the location of the climatic zones.
4) Find the Arctic Circle on the map pages 8 and 168 and determine which parts of the USSR are in the cold zone.

World states on the globe and map.
1) Show on the political map of the world (pp. 184 - 185) the USSR and color it.
2) Find England and its possessions on the same map and color it in a different color.
3) Find the North American United States and fill it in the third color.
The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics is one of the greatest states in the world; it occupies half of Europe and more than a third of Asia. The area of ​​the Union is 21,350,000 sq. km, which is about one seventh of the entire land mass.
The rest of the land is divided among other states, of which there are about 70. Most of them, however, are small compared to the USSR. So, for example, our neighbor Finland (as well as Poland) is too 50 times smaller than the USSR, while Estonia is 500 times smaller.
But there is one state that surpasses the USSR in size and population - it is England, or the British Empire, which occupies almost one-fourth of the entire land mass. England itself (metropolis) is located on the island of Great Britain, where its capital is located - Loyd he (7 million inhabitants); its possessions (colony) are scattered in all parts of the world. In Asia, England's chief colony is India, approximately equal in size to the entire European part of our Union, and far exceeding it in population. In Africa, England owns: South Africa, East Africa, and besides, in her hands are Egypt with the Sues Canal. Australia is captured by England in its entirety, together with New Zealand. In America, England belongs to Canada, which in its geographical position on the American continent and in its nature is similar to our Siberia, but inferior to it in size. All these colonies were captured by England in the course of several centuries, with the help of her huge fleet, which consists of many thousands big ships, trade and military. England exploits her colonies, deriving great benefits from them. Therefore, the colonies strive to free themselves from the power of England and become independent, as happened in the last century with the United States of North America and: before it was an English colony, but now it is an independent and, moreover, a very strong state; its capital is Washington, and its main port is New York, the greatest city in the world (8 million inhabitants).
Then the possessions of France are very great; France itself (the metropolis) is located in Europe, next to England, and its main colonies are in Africa (Algeria, Morocco, Sahara, the island of Madagascar) and partly in Asia (French Indochina). The French capital Paris is located on the European mainland.
Germany and Italy are the most significant among the other states of Europe. Germany used to have large colonies in Africa, but after the World War they passed into the hands of England and France. The capital of Germany is Berlin. Italy has colonies in Africa, the capital of Italy is Rome.
Map of the countries of Northwestern Europe.
4) Color each country on this map with a different color. Seas and lakes in blue. Find Germany and England on the map p. 184 and color them in the same colors as on this map.
Of the states of Asia, the largest are China and Japan. China is populous, 320 million people live in it (as many as in India), China's possessions are extensive, but at present it does not represent one state, since a civil war is going on in it; main cities of China - Beijing,
Shanghai and Canton. Japan is located on the islands called Japanese, where its capital is located - Tokyo. Recently (in the 20th century), Japan seized Korea from China, and now it is striving to annex Manchuria as well.
All states, except our USSR, are headed by bourgeois governments that defend the interests of the capitalists and landowners. These governments, supporting the exploitation of the workers and peasants in their own countries, seek to seize other countries for the same purpose. Among these imperialist states are especially England, France, Italy, Japan, and also the United States of North America, which at the present time are striving to swallow up all the states of Central America.
END OF BOOK FRAGMENT

BRIEF COURSE OF LECTURES ON GEOGRAPHY

Line insulators are designed for insulation and fastening of wires on overhead lines and in switchgears of power stations and substations. They are made of porcelain, tempered glass or polymeric materials. By design, insulators are divided into pin and suspension insulators.

Pin insulators are used on overhead lines with voltage up to 1 kV and on overhead lines 6-35 kV. For a rated voltage of 6-10 kV and below, insulators are made single-element (Fig. 2.10, a), and for 20-35 kV - two-element (Fig. 2.10, b). AT symbol of the insulator, the letter and numbers indicate: W - pin; F (S) - porcelain (glass); figure - rated voltage, kV; the last letter A, B, C - the design of the insulator. Pin insulators are attached to the supports with hooks. If increased reliability is required, then not one, but two or even three pin insulators are installed on the anchor supports.

Dish-shaped suspension insulators are most common for overhead lines with a voltage of 35 kV and above. Suspension insulators (Fig. 2.10, c) consist of a porcelain or glass insulating part 1 and metal parts - a cap 2 and a rod 3, connected to the insulating part by means of a cement binder 4. In fig. 2.10, in the porcelain insulator of normal execution is shown. For overhead lines in areas with a polluted atmosphere, designs of dirt-resistant insulators with increased discharge characteristics and an increased creepage distance have been developed. Suspension insulators are assembled into garlands (Fig. 2.11, a, b), which are supportive and tension. The first ones are mounted on intermediate supports, the second ones - on anchor ones. The number of insulators in a string depends on the line voltage. For example, in supporting garlands of overhead lines with metal and reinforced concrete supports of 35 kV, there should be 3 insulators; 110kV - 6-8, 220kV - 10-14, etc.

Linear fittings used for fastening wires to insulators and insulators to supports are divided into the following main types: clamps used to fasten wires in garlands of suspension insulators; coupling fittings for hanging garlands on supports and connecting multi-chain garlands to each other, as well as connectors for connecting wires and cables in the span.

Coupling fittings include brackets, earrings and lugs. The bracket is intended for attaching the garland to the traverse of the support or to the parts fixed on the traverse. The supporting garland of insulators (Fig. 2.11, a) is fixed on the traverse of the intermediate support using an earring 1. On the one hand, the earring 1 is connected to a bracket or part on the traverse, and on the other hand it is inserted into the cap of the upper insulator 2. To the lower insulator of the garland behind lug 3 is attached to a support clip 4, in which a wire 5 is placed.

Clamps for fixing wires and cables in garlands of suspension insulators are divided into supporting, suspended on intermediate supports, and tension, used on anchor-type supports. According to the strength of the wire fastening, the supporting clamps are divided into deaf and with termination of limited strength. The blind clamp is shown in Fig. 2.11, c. Pressure bolts 1 through plate 2 press the wire to the clamp body (“boat”) 3 and hold it in place with one-sided tension. Blind clamps are the main type of clamps currently used on 35-500kV overhead lines.

Oval connectors (Fig. 2.11, e, g) are used for wires with a cross section of up to 185 mm 2 inclusive. The wires are overlapped in them, after which the connector is crimped using special tongs (Fig. 2.11, e). Steel-aluminum wires with a cross section of up to 95 mm 2 inclusive are fixed in connectors by twisting (Fig. 2.11, g).

Compression connectors are used to connect wires with a cross section of 240 mm 2 or more and steel cables of all sections. For steel-aluminum wires, these clamps consist of two tubes: one is steel, designed to connect internal steel conductors, and the other is aluminum, superimposed on top of the first and used to connect external aluminum conductors (Fig. 2.11, h).

Vibration dampers with weights or damping loops are suspended from the overhead line wires near the clamps, the use of which reduces vibration and prevents wire breakage. The vibration damper consists of two cast-iron weights 1 connected by a steel cable 2 (Fig. 2.11, and). For aluminum and steel-aluminum wires of small cross sections, vibration protection is carried out using a damping loop 1 from a wire of the same brand. The loop is attached to the wire with bolt clamps 2 on both sides of the supporting clamp 3 at the hanging garland of insulators 4 (Fig. 2.11, j).

On wires of 330-750 kV overhead lines, spacers are used (1 - in Fig. 2.11, l) to fix the wires of the split phase relative to each other. These spacers provide the required distance between the individual phase conductors and prevent them from whipping, bumping and twisting.

Conclusion

Air lines power transmission lines (VL) are designed to transmit electricity over a distance through wires. The main structural elements of overhead lines are wires, cables, supports, insulators and linear fittings. Wires are used to transmit electricity. In the upper part of the supports above the wires, lightning protection cables are mounted to protect the overhead lines from lightning surges.

Supports support wires and cables at a certain height above ground or water level. Insulators isolate the wires from the support. With the help of linear fittings, the wires are fixed on the insulators, and the insulators on the supports.

The most widely used are single- and double-circuit overhead lines. One circuit of a three-phase overhead line consists of wires of different phases. Two chains can be located on the same supports.

Bibliography:

Overhead power lines: Proc. allowance for vocational schools. / Magidin F. A.; Ed. A. N. Trifonova. - M.: Higher school, 1991

-Melnikov N. A. Electrical networks and systems. - M.: Energy, 1969

-Kryukov K.P., Novgorodtsev B.P. Designs and mechanical calculation of power lines. - 2nd ed., revised. and additional - L .: Energy, Leningrad. department, 1979

BRIEF COURSE OF LECTURES ON GEOGRAPHY

1. Modern political map of the world: the variety of countries of the modern world, their main types.

1.Modern political map of the world: a variety of countries in the modern world, their main types.

Political map of the world - a geographical map that shows state borders countries of the world. Currently, there are more than 200 countries and territories in the world, of which more than 180 are sovereign states.

Note: sovereign state - a politically independent state with independence in internal and external affairs (the name comes from the French word souverain - supreme, supreme).

It is difficult to specify the exact number of countries, because the political map is constantly changing.

Since the beginning of the 90s, such states as the USSR and the SFRY ceased to exist, the republics that were part of them acquired the status of independent states; two countries - the GDR and the FRG united into one state; Czechoslovakia broke up into two states - the Czech Republic and Slovakia, etc.

There are countries that have declared themselves independent, but are not recognized as such by the world community (Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus)

There are countries that are occupied by other states: Palestine - Israel, East Timor - Indonesia, Western Sahara - Morocco.

But in recent times there are several more officially recognized colonies: under the control of the United States - Eastern Samoa, Guam, etc.; under British control - Gibraltar, St. Helena, etc.

Many territories are not included in the official list of countries for decolonization, because they are claimed by their administering states to be their "overseas" departments.

The countries of the world are diverse in their characteristics, so there is a need to group them:

1) by the size of the territory:

There are 7 largest countries: Russia, Canada, USA, China, Australia, Brazil, Argentina - each of them with an area of ​​​​over 3 million square kilometers, these countries together occupy half of the entire land;

And very tiny states - Andorra, Liechtenstein, Singapore, etc.

2) by population:

The most numerous: China, India, USA, Russia, Indonesia, Brazil, Pakistan - with a population of more than 100 million each;

And small in number - the Vatican and many others.

3) according to the peculiarities of the geographical location:

A) seaside: UK, Australia, Norway, etc.

B) peninsular: India, Greece, Italy.

B) island: Sri Lanka, Iceland.

D) archipelago countries: Philippines, Japan.

E) deprived of access to the sea: Mongolia, Chad.

4) according to the national composition of the population:

Single-national: Japan, Sweden;

Multinational: Russia, India, etc.

5) according to the state system:

Constitutional monarchies (Great Britain, Japan);

Absolute monarchies (Brunei, UAE);

Republics (USA, Germany).

6) according to the state structure:

Unitary (France, Hungary);

Federated (India, Russia).

7) based on socio-economic characteristics:

Until recently, countries were singled out: socialist (USSR, China, etc.); capitalist (USA, Germany, etc.);

Developing (India, Argentina, etc.). This typology is now considered obsolete.

8) according to the level of social economic development:

a) developed (taken into account high level economic development, economic potential, the country's share in the world economy, the structure of the economy, etc.):

G7 countries (USA, Japan, Germany, France, Great Britain, Italy, Canada);

Smaller countries (Sweden, Spain, etc.);

Countries of "settlement capitalism" (Canada, Australia);

CIS (Russia, Ukraine, etc.);

New industrial countries (Korea, Singapore, etc.).

b) developing (transitional states in which socio-economic relations are at the stage of change):

Countries of medium developed capitalism (Brazil, Mexico, etc.);

Oil exporting countries (UAE, Kuwait);

Countries lagging behind in their development and least developed (Afghanistan, Kenya).

The place of any country in the typology is not constant and can change over time, which is usually associated with the internal and external economic relations of states.

2. Scientific and technological revolution: characteristic features and components.

The scientific and technological revolution (STR) is a period of time during which there is a qualitative leap in the development of science and technology, which radically transforms the productive forces of society.

Characteristic features of NTR:

1) universality, inclusiveness (transforms all industries and spheres, the nature of work, life, culture, people's psychology);

2) an extraordinary acceleration of scientific and technological transformations (a sharp reduction in the time between a scientific discovery and its introduction into production, faster product renewal);

3) increasing the requirements for the level of qualification of labor resources (increasing the share of mental labor, general intellectualization);

4) orientation towards the use of scientific and technological achievements for military purposes (the birth of a military-technical revolution).

The characteristic features of the scientific and technological revolution are manifested in all its constituent parts:

1) in science: an increase in R&D spending (research and development), a qualitative improvement in the education system, an increase in ties between science and production, an increase in its science intensity;

2) in engineering and technology:

Introduction of new, mainly physical and chemical technological processes;

The introduction of computers (USA - 1st place in production), robots (Japan - 1st place in production), GPS (- flexible production systems): connection of computers, robot systems, modern machine tools, transport and loading devices - the so-called " deserted" factories;

Development of quantum technology (lasers, masers);

Production of new means of communication (satellites, etc.);

Intensification of old methods of technology.

3) in production:

A sharp complication of the structure of the economy (the emergence of new, high-tech industries - aerospace, etc.);

The growth of science-intensive industries (electrical engineering, instrumentation, etc.);

Production of new materials (semiconductor, ceramic; optical fiber; use of metals of the twentieth century - beryllium, lithium, titanium);

Development of nuclear power;

Intensification of agriculture and transport (increase in productivity, speed of transport, etc.).

4) in management:

The emergence of cybernetics (- the science of control and information);

- "information explosion";

Creation of automated control systems, computer centers;

Training of managers (heads of modern production).

"Aboriginal common goal Geography - one of the oldest sciences in the world - has always been and continues to be the study of nature, population and economy in the territory of a given country, its various parts, other countries and the entire Earth as a whole. Such a study is aimed at both a comprehensive characterization (description) and an explanation of the various similarities and differences in natural conditions and local characteristics of the economy and population. The scientific results of geographic research have always been widely used for practical purposes, in identifying natural resources, agricultural development of the territory, rational distribution of industrial enterprises, settlements and means of communication, as well as for the development of the driving forces of various regions and countries ”(IP Gerasimov, 1960.).
At present, the system of geographical sciences is divided primarily into two major sections: physical geography and economic geography, which includes population geography. This division follows from the very essence of the objects studied by geography - natural phenomena, on the one hand, and social phenomena (population and economy), on the other hand.
Physical geography, taken as a whole, studies the phenomena of nature in the geographical aspect and thus proceeds from the laws of development of nature established by the natural sciences. Economic geography studies social phenomena(features and location of the population and economy) and thus proceeds from the patterns studied by the social sciences.
In turn, physical and economic geography are divided into a number of sciences. The study of the natural geographical environment as a whole and on the scale of the entire globe is the subject of general physical geography, or geography. Characterization and elucidation of the reasons for the similarity or difference of the geographical environment within parts of the earth's surface is the subject of regional physical geography.
The study of individual components of the natural geographic environment is the subject of a whole series of private, or special, physical and geographical sciences (geomorphology, climatology, hydrology, oceanology, soil science, etc.). These sciences are closely interconnected both with general geography and with regional physical geography.
The system of physical and geographical sciences also includes paleogeography, or historical geography, which studies the development of the ancient nature of the Earth. This branch of science is of great and ever-increasing importance for a correct understanding of the modern nature of the earth's surface; its studies make it possible to foresee the development of nature in the future, especially under the influence of the economic activity of human society.
The main theoretical task of economic geography is to establish patterns of geographical distribution of the population and social production. Economic geography is also divided into two main departments: general economic geography, which studies the distribution and composition of the population throughout the world and the location of social production in general, and regional economic geography, which studies the distribution and composition of the population and production within individual countries and regions. Sectoral sciences are also distinguished, such as the geography of industry, agriculture, and transport.
In the system of geographical sciences, it is also necessary to note two sections of geography, namely, regional studies and cartography, which have as their task the combination of scientific data on physical and economic geography for a particular territory for the purpose of theoretical generalizations, practical use and popularization of scientific knowledge.
In Soviet geography, as in all other sciences, the main scientific-theoretical method is dialectical-materialistic. This method determines the abundance of the approach to the studied phenomena, and also underlies a number of specific scientific methods used by Soviet geography for specific research. The most important among them are expeditionary methods, the cartographic method, stationary physical and geographical observations (for seasonal, annual changes in the geographical environment, as well as for changes that reflect its secular development), laboratory analysis and experiment, in conducting economic and geographical research widely a combination of cameral methods associated with the use and processing of statistical materials, reporting data and literary sources, and field methods (in particular, complex expeditions conducted jointly with physical geographers and specialists from other sciences) are used. In recent years, mathematical methods have become increasingly important in geographical research, providing the possibility of an accurate quantitative description of geographical objects.
The use of high-speed electronic calculating machines makes it possible to process, for example, a huge amount of initial economic and geographical data with minimal labor and time, and on this basis allows you to choose the area or point of the planned construction, which will provide maximum savings in material and labor resources during the construction of the facility and maximum efficiency during its operation.
Geography as a school discipline, wrote N. N. Baransky, differs from geography as a science not only in the general scope of the material, but in its sequence, which in science is dictated solely by the logic of science itself, and in a school subject - to a large extent, and sometimes even predominantly special methodological considerations, namely:
1. To give schoolchildren of each given age what to what extent and in what way, what, to what extent and how they can learn.
2. Give a more or less complete circle of knowledge.
As a result, the school discipline has its own, special sequence of presentation, significantly different from the scientific one (“Essays on the School Method of Economic Geography”, 1954).
These provisions of N. N. Baransky serve as the main guide in developing the content of the school geography course.
The foundations of the modern content of geography in the school were formed back in the 1930s with the direct participation of such prominent Soviet Methodist geographers as N. N. Baransky, A. S. Barkov, A. A. Borkov, A. A. Polovinkin, I. A. Vitver, S. V. Chefranov, P. G. Terekhov, V. G. Erdeli and others.
In accordance with the main subdivision of geographical science, the content of the subject included a system of knowledge on the basics of physical and economic geography and cartography. The content of the school course was developed taking into account the state of the geographical sciences, which determined its high ideological and scientific level. Thanks to this, geography in the 1930s took a firm place among the main subjects in school. In subsequent years, the content of school geography was subjected to only partial changes and additions, with the main goal of reflecting the most important issues of our time and strengthening the practical orientation of teaching.
In the 1950s, the content of the programs included practical work, provides for the study of the geography of their region (territory, ASSR). In some cases, the changes made to the program were aimed at raising the scientific level of content, for example, when studying the climate of the USSR, attention was paid to explaining the dynamics of air masses, to soil formation processes, etc. These changes undoubtedly contributed to an increase in the role of geography in school, strengthened the connection with life, with the practice of communist construction.
Great advances have taken place in the development of the geographical sciences over the past thirty years. Modern geography is increasingly becoming an experimental and transformative science, helping to solve practical problems in the increasingly intensive use of natural and labor resources, the transformation of nature and economy. Until very recently, these achievements of geographical science were not adequately reflected in the school. In this regard, it became necessary to significantly update the content of school geography, as well as in other subjects.
The Fourth Congress of the Geographical Society of the USSR (May, 1964), which specifically considered this issue, noted that the content of school geography should be brought more in line with the modern level of geographical science. As a result of training, students must learn the system of basic geographical scientific concepts and patterns. In the teaching of geographers, a vivid and figurative description of geographical objects should be correctly combined with an explanation of their features, with the identification of cause-and-effect relationships and dependencies, which will give the entire course more evidence and increase its educational value.
As a result of studying the basics of physical geography, the student should gain knowledge of the diversity of the natural geographical environment, its structure, relationships, and constituents. the geographical environment of the components, the laws of development of the geographical environment and the processes occurring in it.
Therefore, the basics of general physical geography, regional physical geography (physical country studies), as well as private physical and geographical sciences - geomorphology, climatology, oceanology, land hydrology, soil science, etc. should also be included in the school geography course. with the physical geography of the Earth sciences, in particular from geology, geophysics, geochemistry, since without them many questions of physical geography cannot be understood at the proper scientific level.
A large place in the study of physical geography should be given to natural resources, the transformation of nature, and questions of the relationship between man and nature. The idea of ​​transforming nature by man, the protection and rational use of natural resources should run like a red thread through the entire course.
Such content of the school course in physical geography will enhance the significance of the knowledge acquired in shaping the dialectical-materialist worldview of students, and will more fully reveal the national economic significance of physical geography.
The revision of the content of school economic geography should go primarily in the direction of establishing the correct correlation between questions of general and regional economic geography. It is necessary to significantly increase the proportion of questions of general economic geography in the school course, which will be the most important prerequisite for raising its scientific level, in particular its regional part.
The study of economic geography should give students knowledge of such important concepts and categories of science as economic and geographical location, economic assessment of natural conditions and natural resources, economic zoning, international division of labor, as well as the main types of production-territorial complexes, economic regions, cities.
Students must learn the laws of the territorial division of labor, the main sectoral patterns of production location, the patterns of formation of economic regions, production-territorial complexes.
It is necessary to overcome the underestimation of the geography of the population, characteristic of the school course. School graduates should know both the general patterns of population movement, its composition and settlement, as well as the specific characteristics of the population in various parts the world and in our country.
Raising the scientific level of school geography requires familiarizing students with a number of currently used methods of scientific research.
The work on updating the content of geography, carried out by the subject commission of the USSR Academy of Sciences and the USSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences with the active participation of a number of geographers, methodologists and teachers, was carried out taking into account these recommendations of the IV Congress of the Geographical Society of the USSR, as well as the positive experience gained by the school, and the results scientific and methodological research conducted in the sector of teaching geography of the Research Institute of General and Polytechnic Education of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR and a number of pedagogical institutes and universities of our country.
The main attention was directed to raising the scientific level of school geography, to strengthening the explanatory element and reducing the factual material, which unnecessarily burdens the memory of schoolchildren. At the same time, the task was to preserve everything positive in the historically established content of school geography: priority attention to domestic geography, the local history basis for building courses, studying the geography of one's region (territory, ASSR), excursions and various practical work.
When selecting facts, concepts, patterns from the main sections of the geographical sciences, as well as information from a number of related sciences, it was intended to ensure the strengthening of the role of geography in general and polytechnic education and the upbringing of students. Among the most important pedagogical requirements for the selection of educational material were: the availability of material for students of different age groups; the possibility of using interdisciplinary connections to achieve students' conscious assimilation of the most important scientific concepts at various levels of education; the level of training of students in natural history in the II-IV grades of the school; the time allotted in the curriculum for the study of geography.
The structure of the school course according to the levels of education was determined on the basis of the tasks of universal secondary education, the transition to which will be basically completed in the next five years. This made it possible to overcome excessive concentrism and pedagogically unjustified repetitions and build the course according to a linear-step principle.
The system of didactically processed knowledge in physical geography, taking into account the above requirements, includes the main sections from general physical geography and regional physical geography of the continents and the USSR.
The problem of correlation between sections of general and regional physical geography at school has always been one of the most difficult and debatable problems. And it reappeared with particular urgency in connection with the revision and updating of the course content.
Various points of view were expressed about possible approaches to its solution. The point of view, reflected in the draft of the new program, proceeds from the fact that the sections of general and regional physical geography in the school course should represent a certain unity, ensuring the gradual familiarization of students with the system of the most important scientific concepts and laws of nature, with its natural resources and the conditions for their rational human use and protection. At the beginning of studying the basics of physical geography (grade V), students are given knowledge in an accessible form about the geospheres (litho-, hydro, atmosphere and geographical shell), about the methods of their study, about the main components of the natural complex and the interconnections between them. This system of knowledge about the Earth as a whole is the initial step in the knowledge of issues of general physical geography. Taking into account the level of development and training of students does not allow at this initial stage to give the entire necessary system of scientific concepts and patterns from general physical geography.
The most complex concepts that require reliance on knowledge in related subjects are consistently studied in connection with the main topics of regional physical geography.
In this regard, the previously established experience of constructing a school course in physical geography was used, but taking into account the significant shortcomings of this experience, identified in teaching practice. Among these shortcomings were: the incompleteness of the system of scientific concepts, the lack of focused attention to the study of the most important laws of the development of nature, in particular the development of its individual components over time, the lack of special generalizations on the main sections of general physical geography, etc.
On the part of a number of representatives of geographical science, a different solution was proposed: to concentrate all the main questions of general physical geography at the beginning of a systematic course of school geography in such a way that the subsequent study of regional physical geography (physical country studies) would have a sufficient scientific basis. This decision would be most consistent with the logic of science, but it was in sharp conflict with the logic of building a school course. With such a solution, the study of the most complex scientific concepts would fall on the earliest age of students who do not yet have training in physics, biology and chemistry.
Such a decision was also put forward - to begin the systematic study of geography with regional studies, in which nature, population and economy would be considered in a complex. In the senior classes, it was proposed to study the basics of general physical and economic geography. This proposal also did not take into account the training and level of development of middle-class students, for whom a comprehensive examination of nature, population and economy would inevitably come down mainly to remembering what is where, without comprehending the reasons that determine the uniqueness of this complex. Thus, the study of geography in the middle classes would not contribute to the proper extent to the development of students. It should also be borne in mind that in the upper grades, the study of geography is not provided with sufficient time. In view of the pedagogical groundlessness, these proposals were not taken as a basis for building a system of knowledge in geography.
The initial stage of the systematic study of physical geography (grade V) is based on the natural history training of students. In grade IV, the following topics are studied: “Earth is a planet of the solar system”, “Air”, “Water”, “Rocks”, “Plants and animals and the environment”. The study of these topics introduces students to the elements inanimate nature and their physical and chemical properties, helps to understand the relationship between living and inanimate nature. The most important questions from the course of natural history for the study of physical geography are the following: the reasons for the change of seasons; weather, relationship between weather elements; water is a solvent; rocks and minerals, their properties; dependence of plants and animals on the amount of heat, light, moisture; use and change of flora and fauna, protection of natural resources.
The inclusion of these questions in natural history made it possible to make the content of the initial course of physical geography more "geographical", to free it from astronomical and meteorological concepts.
When discussing the draft program (on natural history, some teacher teams objected to the inclusion of the topic “Earth is a planet of the solar system” in its content. This was justified by the fact that the content of the topic was difficult to digest for fifth graders, and, therefore, it will be even more difficult for fourth grade students "When determining the place of the topic, it was taken into account that the basis of its content is astronomical concepts. For the study of geography, the most important questions in the content of the topic are knowledge of the shape of the Earth and the reasons for the change of seasons. The first of these questions is quite accessible to students of an earlier age. The question of The reasons for the change of seasons, as shown by the data of repeated checks, were not assimilated consciously by the majority of fifth-graders.Based on this, it was decided to study this issue dispersed, starting from grade IV. In grade V, the causes of the change of seasons are considered in connection with establishing differences in lighting and naked roaring of the surface of the globe on June 22 and December 22 and the seasons in the northern and southern hemispheres. Students should return to this issue again when studying the geography of the continents (the reasons for the uneven distribution of solar radiation on the territory of the globe) and the USSR (the distribution of total radiation on the territory of the USSR). There is reason to believe that with such an approach to the study of the issue, one can achieve its conscious assimilation.
Reliance on knowledge in natural history, as well as in mathematics for grades IV and V (the concepts of degrees, angles and their measurement with a protractor, positive and negative numbers, arithmetic mean, percentages) can significantly increase the level of general geographic training of schoolchildren at the first stage of study general physical geography. This increase is ensured by the fact that the content of the course includes knowledge about the geospheres in a more systematic way; about the interaction of the components of nature (relief and rocks, climate, water, soil, plants and wildlife) on the example of the natural complex of their area. Increased attention is also paid to showing the development of natural components (in particular, relief) over time, to familiarizing students with modern geographical research (on the study of the earth's crust, oceans and seas, and the atmosphere).
The initial course of physical geography includes the topics: "Introduction" (aimed at giving an idea of ​​the subject of physical geography); "The image of the Earth on the globe and maps" (with the subtopic "Plan of the area"); "Lithosphere"; "Hydrosphere"; "Atmosphere"; "Geographical shell of the Earth"; "The population of the world".
The basis of the course, therefore, is a system of general geographical concepts, assimilated by students on the basis of ideas obtained in the surrounding nature, and a strictly selected circle of single concepts that reflect the most typical geographical objects on the territory of the USSR (mainly) and the world.
The construction of the course is designed for the gradual complication of knowledge, the timely conduct of excursions to study the objects of the surrounding nature and practical work on the ground, the consistent expansion of knowledge about the map, its systematic use and improvement of skills in working with it.
The content of the geography of the continents course includes knowledge about the nature, population and political map of the continents and a significant range of general physical and geographical concepts that provide a deeper scientific explanation of the features of the physical and geographical conditions of large territories.
The study of the course will begin with the continents of the southern hemisphere and end with a consideration of Eurasia. The change in the order of study of the continents was adopted on the basis of the following main considerations. On the southern continents, better than in Eurasia, latitudinal zonality can be traced, the dependence of climate and natural zones on geographic latitude. This ensures the assimilation and deeper understanding of the basic geographical law. The study of the Eurasian continent, which is more complex in nature, takes place at the end of the course, when students are better prepared. Many of the concepts that can be learned by students when studying other continents will provide an opportunity for a deeper and more convincing explanation of the uniqueness and dynamics of the nature of Eurasia. A higher scientific level of study of the Eurasian continent will create the most favorable conditions for studying the physical geography of the USSR. Logical continuity is ensured between the courses on the geography of the continents and the geography of the USSR. When studying the physical-geographical regions of Eurasia, this makes it possible to confine ourselves to considering only foreign regions. This eliminates the unjustified repetition of the same material and ensures the inclusion of a number of new questions.
When discussing the draft program for the course of geography of the continents, a number of people expressed objections to the proposed sequence of studying topics. The main argument was that the study of the southern continents at the beginning of the course allegedly violates the principle of didactics from close to far, from known to unknown and weakens the possibility of implementing the local history principle. It was also noted that the proposed structure of the course would cause additional difficulties in studying the political map. But at the same time, an equally important principle - from simple to complex - was not taken into account at all. And if we proceed from this principle, then the new location of the continents is undoubtedly pedagogically fully justified. The local lore principle should equally be implemented in the study of not only Eurasia, but also any other continent.
There were also objections to the shift to the study of continents instead of parts of the world. From the point of view of physical geography, it is more correct to recognize the study of the world by continents, since parts of the world have a historical origin and therefore this division is very arbitrary. Each continent is studied along with the islands adjacent to it. With the concepts of the mainland (continent) and part of the world, students are introduced at the very beginning of the course.
The content of the geographical characteristics of the continents includes two sections:
1) a general overview of the mainland: geographical position, size, outlines, oceans and seas washing the mainland, the largest islands; brief information about the history of the discovery and research of nature; relief, its geological structure, minerals and their relationship with the main rocks that make up the mainland, the phenomena of volcanism and earthquakes; climate and factors forming it, climatic zones; rivers and lakes, features of their regime in different climatic zones, economic importance of rivers and lakes; vegetation and soils, their dependence on climate, the animal world, its dependence on climate and vegetation; natural zones and their connection with climatic zones; changes in natural conditions under the influence of human economic activity; population, its composition, political map.
2) Overview of the mainland by large areas (for Africa, such an overview is given by natural zones): the geographical position of the region, the characteristics of natural conditions and natural wealth; typical pictures of nature; political map; population, its composition, pictures of life and work, characteristic features of economic activity; major states, major cities.
Consideration of natural resources and their economic use within large areas is carried out in close connection with the social system, working conditions, life and culture of the population. This approach to the consideration of large areas of the continents reflects the country-specific nature of the course.
In connection with the study of the continents, students consistently get acquainted with a large range of general scientific concepts and patterns. The largest number of common concepts is included in the content of the first topic - an overview of Africa, since without their assimilation the features of the nature of the continent cannot be understood. This is due to the relatively large number of hours to study the topic.
The system of general concepts and regularities included in the content of the characteristics of the continents ensures that the natural conditions of the continents are considered in accordance with modern scientific views. Attention is being paid to revealing the patterns of relief formation, the distribution of soils depending on climate and vegetation, concepts of climatic zones are being introduced, etc.
In the final topic of the course "General Geographical Patterns", the task is to systematize the knowledge of students, obtained by them in the study of the continents, and lead to an understanding of the main geographical patterns. In this topic, students' knowledge of the structure of the globe, the heterogeneity of the earth's crust is summarized, students are brought to an understanding of the patterns of location on the earth's surface of stable and moving parts of the earth's crust and associated landforms, with changes in the outlines of the continents. Knowledge about the climates of the Earth is generalized and brought into the system. For this purpose, knowledge about the causes of the uneven distribution of solar radiation on Earth (as a result of the spherical shape of the Earth and the rotation of the Earth around its axis with its constant inclination to the plane of the Earth's orbit at an angle of 66 ° 33 ") will be generalized and deepened); the dynamics of the atmosphere will be explained elementarily, will a general review of the climatic zones of the Earth was made. Much attention in this topic is paid to the interaction of relief and climate and their influence on soils, vegetation and wildlife. On this basis, the geographical zonality of nature on the plains (along geographical zones) and in mountainous countries will be characterized. Introduction the concept of geographical zones will allow bringing into the system the knowledge of students about the natural zones of the continents and will provide a fairly deep understanding of the law of geographical zonality.
In conclusion, the topic is intended to bring knowledge into the system in the interaction of nature and man.
Understanding the relationship between the components of nature and its changes under the influence of human activities, which are especially pronounced in the modern era due to the huge scientific and technological progress, will allow students to reveal the main directions for the protection and restoration of nature with sufficient depth.
A brief analysis of the course content allows us to make a general conclusion that it organically combines: 1) the study of regional physical geography (continents and their large parts), supplemented by a system of knowledge about the population and its economic activities in the most important regions and countries of the world, and 2) further development of knowledge in general physical geography. The second side of the course content is implemented in two directions: 1) general geographical concepts are acquired in connection with the study of specific regions and 2) generalization and systematization of knowledge in the most important sections of general physical geography at the end of the course based on the acquired knowledge.
The assimilation of a large amount of knowledge included in the course content is based on previous training in general physical geography, as well as knowledge in related subjects - botany and zoology, and partly history.
As basic knowledge in biology, the understanding of the role of plants and vegetation in nature, human life and in the national economy is of the greatest importance; plant life conditions (water, air, light, heat, mineral salts); plant communities; characteristic features of the structure and biology of typical plants of the tundra, forests, steppes, deserts, swamps, aquatic vegetation; familiarity with the animal world, living conditions of animals. The use of this knowledge will help to strengthen the elements of explanation, the features of the natural zones of the continents.
The use of knowledge on the history of the ancient world (grade V) and the Middle Ages (grade VI) greatly facilitates the acquaintance of students with the modern composition of the population of continents and countries, the main types of economic activity. Of great importance are students' knowledge of the history of the great geographical discoveries, which can be widely used when considering the discovery of America, the exploration of Africa, Asia. The use of knowledge of history greatly facilitates the work of students in the study of geographical nomenclature, the volume of which, even with strict selection, is quite extensive, since the world as a whole is being studied. In history, students make extensive use of historical maps. Thanks to this, they learn a large amount of geographical names. In the content of the course of physical geography of the USSR, the main attention is paid to the study of the peculiarities of the nature of our country, its natural resources as a necessary basis for the development of the diversified economy of a socialist society.
The content of the course has a clearly defined character of physical regional studies. Reliance on knowledge of the previous course, as well as on knowledge of physics, chemistry, biology, and partly the history of the USSR, will make it possible to build the teaching of this course at a fairly high scientific level. For the purpose of a deeper explanation of the regularities in the distribution of the main landforms, the genesis of minerals, the course content includes the necessary minimum of geological knowledge about the development of the earth's crust (the main geological structures on the territory of the USSR are geosynclines and platforms different ages, their origin and development, the concept of geological chronology).
Information is also introduced on modern methods for determining the relative and absolute age of rocks. For the same purpose, a range of new general geographical concepts is included in the content of other topics, mainly a general review of the USSR. The topic "Climate of the USSR" gives concepts about the distribution of total solar radiation on the territory of the USSR, about meteorological fronts, evapotranspiration and moisture coefficient. This knowledge will allow students to take a new step in understanding the patterns of climate, to understand with greater depth the reasons for the location of natural zones on the territory of the USSR, to reasonably identify areas with unequal moisture content, to draw conclusions based on environmental knowledge (from the biology course) about the rational distribution of crops and various livestock industries.
All this serves as the basis for the formation of knowledge about the laws of nature, understanding the reasons due to which an exceptional variety of natural conditions is created within the vast territory of our Motherland. A great deal of attention and attention in the course is given to the characterization of natural resources and the assessment of their national economic significance. The idea of ​​rational use of natural resources, their protection and restoration runs like a red thread through the content of the course.
The course content is divided into three sections:
1) a general physical and geographical survey of the USSR; 2) a review of the natural conditions of large regions of the USSR; 3) the geography of their region (territory, ASSR).
Such a division of the course makes it possible to consistently move from a small-scale study of the nature of the country (in a general overview) to a relatively large-scale one (when studying natural areas and especially the topic “Own Region”, Territory, Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic).
In the content of the general physical-geographical review of the USSR, the main attention is paid to the consideration of the general regularities of nature. When considering the individual components of nature, the main emphasis is on explaining the reasons that determine their formation, identifying the relationships and interdependencies between them. Thus, when considering the relief, for example, the focus is not on individual forms of relief, but on the explanation of the reasons for the diversity of the relief of the USSR, its continuous development as a result of the interaction of internal and external processes, and the genesis of minerals. In the same way, in the topic “Climate of the USSR”, the focus is on the characteristics of the main factors that determine the diversity of climate types on the territory of the USSR.
In contrast to the previous program, the content of individual topics of the general review does not include questions about the components of the nature of their field. This, of course, does not mean that this negates the importance of the local history approach in studying the general overview of the USSR. The experience of applying the previous program convincingly showed the pedagogical groundlessness of including special questions about the relief, climate, inland waters, and natural zones of one's region in the content of the topics of the general review. Firstly, it caused unnecessary tension in time when studying the topics of the general review, as it significantly increased the volume of their content, and, secondly, did not contribute to the correct implementation of the local history approach. Instead of a broad reliance on the results of observations in the natural environment, when studying topics of a general overview in teaching practice, schoolchildren were often asked to read the corresponding section in a textbook on the geography of their area.
The content of the second section of the course includes characteristics of the natural features of the large natural regions of the USSR (East European Plain; Carpathian, Crimean, Caucasian mountains; plateaus, mountains and lowlands of Central Siberia; mountains and lowlands of North-East Siberia; the mountain belt of South Siberia (Altai, Sayan, Baikal and Transbaikalia); as well as the mountains and lowlands of the Far East; mountains and lowlands of Central Asia and Kazakhstan).
The selection of these large areas is based on the genetic principle of physical-geographical zoning. Large areas are taken as the main territorial unit, united by the unity of the history of development and a peculiar complex of modern natural conditions.
In the content of the characteristics of large areas, the main attention is directed to the identification of general physical and geographical patterns that determine the formation and development of various natural complexes and natural resources on their territory. To this end, the characteristics of the regions include questions about the geological structure and its influence on the formation of the modern relief, the influence of ancient glaciation on the relief, the main factors of climate formation, etc. Considerable attention is paid to the latest research, in particular, the West Siberian Plain. Consideration of large areas in this aspect will make it possible to reveal with sufficient depth the diversity of natural conditions and natural resources on the territory of the USSR and to explain the reasons that caused them.
For each region, a detailed description of natural resources, their accounting, rational use, protection and transformation of nature in the interests of communist construction is provided, information is also provided on the composition and distribution of the population.
The third section - "Geography of one's region (territory, ASSR)" - includes a description of the nature and population of the native region. When analyzing the features of the nature of the region, the focus is on issues of natural resources, their protection, restoration and rational use. In characterizing the population of the region, it is meant to acquaint schoolchildren with the composition and dynamics of the population, its way of life and culture. The concept of labor resources is introduced.
The study of the geography of the region as a whole must be completed by considering its internal natural differences. This approach to the study of the final topic of the course makes it possible to acquaint schoolchildren (based on their direct observations in the surrounding nature) with the methods of large-scale geographical study of the territory and more fully show the practical significance of knowledge of physical geography.
The course of economic geography of the USSR is a logical continuation of the previous course. Based on students' knowledge of the natural conditions and natural resources of the USSR (in general and in large natural areas), the course should provide knowledge about the population and labor resources of the USSR, about the patterns of development and distribution of the national economy of the first socialist country in the world. In accordance with the main division of the economic geography of the USSR into general and regional, the course includes two sections: 1) a general economic and geographical overview of the USSR; 2) an overview of the union republics and major economic regions of the RSFSR.
When updating the content of the course and, especially, the general overview of the national economy, much attention was paid to a more complete acquaintance of students with the basic laws and patterns of socialist production: the law of the planned development of the national economy, the principles for the location of individual branches of production, the factors of the territorial division of labor, the patterns of formation of regions and prospects development of the union republics. An examination of these questions ensures that students understand the tasks of communist construction outlined in the Program of the CPSU.
In considering these questions, which are of paramount importance for the ideological and political education of students, the decrease in the age and level of students' training in related subjects must be taken into account. Therefore, special requirements must be made for textbooks, in which the most important concepts of economic geography must be presented in a form accessible to students. For example, if in grades X or XI such concepts as a full-cycle metallurgical plant or the integrated use of raw materials in non-ferrous metallurgy, its connections with the chemical and electrical industries, did not present great difficulties, since their formation was based on knowledge of chemistry, now students for the first time will get acquainted with them in the study of economic geography. This will require significant additional time, and the content of the concepts can be given mainly in terms of information.
The study of the course begins with a brief introduction, which aims to explain the subject and tasks of economic geography and briefly characterize the place of the USSR in the world economy.
The topic "Population and labor resources of the USSR" includes questions about the national composition of the population, the differences in language among the peoples of the USSR, and the political and administrative division of the USSR. Much attention is paid to showing population dynamics (population growth, differences in population density in different parts of the country, migration, changes in the ratio of urban and rural population). For the first time, the concepts of the main types of settlements (city, urban-type settlement, village) are introduced. The content of the concept of "labor resources" is more fully disclosed, the importance of labor resources in the development and location of the economy, the degree of availability of labor resources in various regions of the country, the ratio of labor resources of cities and rural areas are characterized.
In conclusion, the topic shows the trends that are currently manifesting in the redistribution of labor resources between the main areas of production (industry, agriculture, transport and the non-manufacturing sector).
The topic "General characteristics of the national economy of the USSR" includes the concepts of the structure of the national economy, the planned and proportional development of the national economy. The essence of the concept of the material and technical base of communism is revealed and a characteristic is given general principles location of socialist production. The study of this topic is aimed at forming a sufficiently deep understanding of the fundamental changes in the structure of the national economy of the USSR, achieved in a short historical period on the basis of the advantages of the socialist economic system. The review of the national economy by sectors (industry, agriculture and transport) is intended to reveal the significance of each sector in the national economy, the current state and main features of the geography of these sectors, highlighting the main regions, as well as their prospects. further development. When considering the geography of heavy industry, much attention is paid to the formation of general economic and geographical concepts about typical socialist industrial enterprises, specialization, cooperation and combination of enterprises.
In terms of information, students also get acquainted with a number of economic concepts, such as the profitability of an enterprise, the cost of production, etc.
When studying the geography of agriculture, its close connection with natural conditions is taken into account; therefore, much attention is paid to the issues of land reclamation in various natural zones and zonal specialization of agriculture. The concepts of intensive and extensive direction of the economy are introduced, the trend of gradual transformation of agriculture into a branch of industrial production is characterized.
A general review of the sectors of the national economy provides for the systematic use of the local history approach to its study. To this end, when examining branches of the national economy, it is planned to acquaint schoolchildren with the most important local enterprises. The same goal is kept in mind when conducting an excursion to local industrial or agricultural enterprises.
The final topic of the general review, "Economic Regionalization of the USSR," is intended to reveal the differences in natural, historical, and economic conditions on the territory of the USSR as an objective prerequisite for the geographical division of labor between individual areas where economic regions were formed. The economic region is regarded as a territorial production complex with specialization on an all-Union scale.
Knowledge about the population and labor resources, the geography of the most important sectors of the economy, and the regularities of the territorial division of labor serve as the basis for a deep understanding of the economic and geographical characteristics of the Union republics and economic regions of the RSFSR.
The content of the economic and geographical characteristics of the union republics and economic regions of the RSFSR includes: economic and geographical position, natural resources and their assessment, population and labor resources, the current state and main features of the geography of the national economy, prospects for its development, and the largest cities.
The content of the general concept of the economic and geographical position of the region is revealed in the first topic of the regional review. The assessment of the natural resources of the districts is based on the students' knowledge of the natural conditions and resources reported in grade VII.
When studying the population of the Union republics and regions of the RSFSR, most attention is paid to changes in the ratio of the urban and rural population, to the growth major cities, the upsurge of culture, the mutual assistance of the Soviet peoples in the development of the economy and culture of formerly backward national regions.
In characterizing the national economy of the Union republics and regions of the RSFSR, the most important issue is the substantiation of the specialization of the economy, taking into account natural and labor resources, the features of economic development in the past and present. The essence of the integrated development of the economy of the region is revealed on the basis of the subdivision of the branches of the economy into groups: 1) a group of branches of specialization that are directly involved in inter-regional exchange and determine the place of the region in the territorial division of labor; 2) a group of auxiliary industries that ensure the development of industries of specialization (deliveries of raw materials, semi-finished products, fuel and energy, transport services); 3) a group of service industries that meet the needs of the population. The last (3rd) group can only be indicated, but is not specially studied.
The characteristics of the present level of the national economy of the Union republics and the prospects for their development are aimed at revealing the successes in equalizing the levels of economic development of the backward regions.
When studying the economic region of the RSFSR, which includes "its own" region (krai, ASSR), a brief, generalizing description of the national economy of the region and the identification of its place in the specialization of the region are provided.
The content of the course of economic geography of foreign countries also includes questions of general and regional economic geography. Attention to questions of general economic geography contributes to raising the scientific level of the course, strengthening its role in the ideological and political education of students. The inclusion in the content of the course of such issues as the features of the international division of labor under socialism and capitalism, the place of the USSR and the socialist system in the world economy, the features of the development and location of production in socialist and various types of capitalist countries, etc., provides logical continuity between the courses of economic geography of the USSR and foreign countries. During the course, students become acquainted with the ever-increasing importance of the external economic relations of the USSR with both socialist countries and with capitalist and developing countries.
In contrast to the economic geography of the USSR, in the content of the course under consideration, questions of general economic geography are presented not only at the beginning, but also at the end of the course. At the beginning, consideration of the following questions is envisaged: the formation of a modern political map of the world (the formation of the world socialist system and the collapse of the colonial system of imperialism and the reflection of these processes on the political map of the world); a brief description of the social and economic structure of socialist foreign countries and countries of the capitalist system; characteristics of the world population; the concept of the international geographical division of labor, the fundamental differences between this division under capitalism and socialism; the main forms of economic cooperation and mutual assistance of the socialist countries.
Familiarization of students with these questions prepares them for a more conscious study of individual foreign countries. At the end of the course, in order to generalize knowledge about foreign countries and the USSR, a description of the world economy as a whole is given in its most important sectors (industry, agriculture, transport) and external economic relations. Much attention in the study of the final theme is given to characterizing the place of the USSR and the socialist system in the world economy, in the international socialist division of labor and in foreign relations. When studying issues of general economic geography, students get acquainted with many concepts (international division of labor, self-employed population, specialization and cooperation on an international scale, types of agrarian relations, indicators of the level of economic development of countries, etc.).
Taking into account the limited time for studying the course and the need for a deeper consideration of the features of the economic geography of the main groups of countries led to the construction of the course program on the principle of selective study of individual countries, especially countries of the capitalist system. The course syllabus also includes a broad overview of country groups. This construction of the course allows students to provide basic information about the political map, natural and labor resources and the features of the economic development of all the main regions of the world and give more in-depth and specific knowledge about individual important countries.
The countries of the socialist system of Europe, Asia and America are studied first in the course.
The countries of the capitalist system are considered by parts of the world. When developing the characteristics of groups of countries and individual states, much attention is paid to showing their economic and geographical specifics. The economic and geographical characteristics of the socialist countries, in addition to general issues(about the economic and geographical position, natural resources, population, etc.), include questions about changes in the structure of the national economy as a result of socialist industrialization, about the place of countries in the international socialist division of labor, about shifts in the location of industry, about creating new branches of the economy, etc. .
In the economic and geographical characteristics of the largest capitalist countries, much attention is paid to showing the features of the class and professional composition of the population, identifying the country's place in the world capitalist economy, the importance of state-monopoly capitalism in the economy, characterizing structural changes in industry, types of farms in agriculture.
In the characteristics of developing countries, the greatest importance is attached to questions that help to understand the causes of difficulties in economic development; the importance of measures to create a national industry, the formation of a public sector in the economy; the role of assistance to the USSR and other socialist countries.
Such an approach to determining the content of the economic and geographical characteristics of countries makes it possible to reveal in sufficient detail the peculiarities of the development and distribution of the economy of socialist and various types of capitalist countries.
A brief review of the content of school geography courses allows us to draw a general conclusion about bringing the content of the subject more in line with the current state of geographical science.
Raising the scientific level of the content of geography is also ensured by the more complete acquaintance of schoolchildren with the scientific methods of geography. First of all, it is meant to increase the level of topographic and cartographic knowledge and skills to work with a variety of maps (including geological, tectonic, synoptic and other special maps). This task is determined based on the importance of the cartographic method in geographical science. Increased attention to work with maps will also be one of the means of rationalizing and facilitating the process of assimilation of geographical knowledge.
In order to more systematically familiarize students with the basics of cartographic knowledge in the first three courses of geography, special topics are highlighted (Image of the Earth on a globe and map" (in grade V); "Maps of continents" (in grade VI) and "Maps depicting the territory of the USSR" ( in the seventh grade).
In the first topic, the task is set - to systematize students' knowledge of the terrain plan, which they received in elementary school, then elementary representation about the image of the relief on the topographic map by the method of contour lines; on the basis of a comparison of the globe and the map, students are led to an understanding of the conditional image of the Earth's surface on geographical maps. The scales of maps, the geographical (degree) grid and its use on the globe and map are studied, the concepts of geographical latitude and longitude, relative and altitude places, scale of heights and depths. Thus, already at this stage of training, the foundation for a correct understanding of the map is laid.
The topic "Maps of the continents" introduces knowledge about the differences in maps in terms of coverage of the territory (maps of the world, hemispheres, individual continents) and content (general geographical and special). The dependence of the size of distortions is revealed cartographic image on the size of the territory on the map, the convention of the scales on the maps is shown; methods for determining the approximate scale in various parts of the map on a geographical grid. When studying Africa (the first of the studied continents), concepts are introduced about the imaging methods used on climate maps.
The topic "Maps Depicting the Territory of the USSR" provides knowledge about the differences in maps in scale (small, medium and large scale), about the features of the image of a spherical surface on a plane, about the inevitability of distortions on maps due to the curvature of the Earth, an elementary concept of the nature these distortions. Practical acquaintance with the measuring properties of maps of the USSR of various scales is provided, the dependence of cartographic generalization (generalization) on the scale and content of maps is shown; generalizes knowledge about the methods of depicting various objects and phenomena on them (special conventional signs, background coloring, areas, isolines, lines of movement).
Topographic maps in class VII are considered as one of the main varieties of large-scale geographical maps; the main elements of the content and measuring properties of these maps are revealed, the concept of the essence of the method of depicting the relief by contour lines is formed.
When studying the topic “Geological structure, relief and minerals of the USSR”, practical acquaintance with geological and tectonic maps is carried out; in the topic "Climate of the USSR" - with a synoptic map.
The courses of economic geography provide for practical familiarization with economic maps for various purposes. The system of cartographic knowledge included in the content of geography provides an understanding of maps and mastery of the methods of their correct use.
The question of the order of studying cartographic knowledge included in special topics can be decided at the discretion of the teacher. Perhaps a double solution to this issue is the study of cartographic knowledge before the consideration of specific geographical topics or in organic connection with them.
In order to meet the interests and develop individual inclinations of high school students, extracurricular activities are introduced according to the new curriculum. They take out subjects, the elements of knowledge of which are included in the content of school geography, but due to lack of time, and also because of the service role of this knowledge in relation to geography (for example, knowledge of geology or the basics of economics), they cannot be studied in the lessons with sufficient depth and completeness. Optional classes should make up for the missing subjects in the curriculum of the secondary school, which are of great ideological and practical importance. These include the foundations of geology and the foundations of economics of the most important branches of the national economy. Optional classes on the basics of cartography and topography and geology will strengthen the interdisciplinary links between geography and biology and mathematics, as well as improve the level of practical skills of schoolchildren for a more in-depth study of the nature, population and economy of their native land.
An exemplary program on the basics of geology includes two sections: the first provides knowledge of general geology, the second - of historical geology. Much attention in the course is paid to the study of geological processes that change the face of the earth's surface, as well as rocks and minerals of their area. Theoretical classes are necessarily combined with practical work in the classroom and on the ground to identify rocks and minerals.
The topography and cartography program includes the Basic sections of knowledge on cartography. The first section is devoted to the study topographic map, the second - small-scale general geographical and special (thematic) maps. When studying the course, the knowledge gained in the lessons of geography and mathematics is widely used. In this course, practical work takes the main place and aims to develop practical skills in the conscious use of topographic and small-scale maps. The course of the fundamentals of the economy of the most important branches of the national economy (industry, agriculture, transport) must be studied with due regard for the local production environment. In cities, for example, the main focus may be on the study of industrial economics, other sections of the course may be studied in an informational way.
The new content of school geography, substantially supplemented by extracurricular activities, will correspond to a much greater extent to the present level of geographical science and to the tasks of geography at school.
The tasks of teaching and the content of the subject determine the organization of the process of mastering knowledge, the formation of skills and abilities.

The course is based on the idea of ​​the unity and interconnection of the components of the geographic envelope of the Earth. It will lay the foundations of scientific knowledge about the Earth sciences, make it possible to understand the main geographical patterns and trends in the development of geographical phenomena and processes, and form a holistic view of modern world and about the place of Russia in it, systematizes geographical information.

About the course

The course will tell about the geographical features of nature and the population of different territories of our planet, because geography is not just a science, but a way of studying the modern world, understanding by everyone their place in the world as part of the environment, responsibility for its preservation.

Course objectives:

• specify ideas about the spatial heterogeneity of the Earth's surface at different levels of its differentiation (from planetary to local);
• identify the geographical features of nature, the population of different territories, including Russia;
• to form a holistic view of the modern world, of Russia's place in this world;
• consolidate cartographic literacy;
• understand the meaning of basic geographical concepts and terms;
• identify and explain the essential features of geographical objects and phenomena, identifying cause-and-effect relationships;
• have an idea about environment ways of its conservation and rational use.

In the process of mastering the discipline, students will be able to:

• evaluate and predict the influence of man on individual components of nature and the influence of nature on all aspects of human activity;
• explain the geographical specifics of large natural geographic shells, geographical phenomena and processes in the geospheres and the relationship between them, the geographical consequences of the Earth's movements, changes in the geographical shell as a result of human activity; geographic zonality and zonation;
• determine and compare geographic trends in the development of natural, socio-economic and geo-ecological objects, processes and phenomena using different sources of information;
• rely on modern scientific ideas in the process of studying geography and ecology;
• analyze the demographic, economic, environmental situation at the local, regional, global levels;
• explain the essential features of geographical objects and phenomena, identifying cause-and-effect relationships.

Format

The course includes:

• thematic video lectures;
• additional materials, including a list of additional literature, links to useful information from various sources and video materials for self-viewing;
• test tasks for assessment (15 questions for each section of the course).

A final control test is provided for the content of the entire course, consisting of 50 questions. The final assessment of learning outcomes is formed on the basis of the data of the final testing and weekly control.

The course is designed for 10 weeks of study. The weekly workload of students in the course is 10 hours. The total complexity of the course is 3 credits.

Informational resources

1. Economic, social and political geography (theoretical foundations): Textbook. - Tomsk: Publishing House of Tomsk University, 2004. 176 p. – URL: http://chamo.lib.tsu.ru/lib/item?id=chamo:199326&theme=system
2. Economic and social geography of Russia: Workshop. Teaching aid. - Tomsk: Publishing House of SKK-Press, 2006. 134 p. – URL: http://vital.lib.tsu.ru/vital/access/manager/Repository/vtls:000223739
3. Geography in figures and facts: teaching aid / T. V. Romashova; under total ed. A. M. Maloletko. - Tomsk: [b. i.], 2008. 151 p. – URL: http://vital.lib.tsu.ru/vital/access/manager/Repository/vtls:000342747
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Requirements

The required level of preparation is basic knowledge of the school course of geography.

The course is designed for bachelors of 1-2 years of study in the areas of training 05.03.04 Hydrometeorology and 05.03.06 Ecology and nature management

Course program

The online course consists of nine sections:

Section 1. Sources of geographic information

1.1. The history of the development of geographical knowledge about the Earth

1.2. The shape and dimensions of the Earth

1.3. Axial motion of the Earth and geographic implications

1.4. Orbital motion of the Earth and geographic implications

1.5. Types of images of the earth's surface

1.6. Geographic map

Section 2. Atmosphere of the Earth

2.1. The concept of the atmosphere

2.2. Heating of the atmosphere

2.3. Water in the atmosphere

2.4. atmospheric pressure

2.5. Air masses and atmospheric fronts

2.6. Weather and climate

Section 3. Earth's lithosphere

3.1. The internal structure of the Earth. Geological chronology

3.2. The composition and structure of the earth's crust

3.3. Relief-forming internal processes

3.4. Relief-forming external processes

3.5. landform

3.6. The relief of the bottom of the oceans

Section 4. Hydrosphere and biosphere of the Earth. Geographic envelope

4.1. The concept of the hydrosphere. The water cycle in nature. World ocean: properties of waters

4.2. The movement of waters in the ocean: waves and sea currents

4.3. Land waters: groundwater, lakes, glaciers

4.4. Land waters: rivers, swamps

4.5. Biosphere

4.6. The concept of the geographical shell. Properties and patterns

Section 5. World population

5.1. World population and its dynamics

5.2. Vital movement of the population

5.3. Sex and age structure of the population

5.4. Mechanical population movement

5.5. Ethnogeography

5.6. Population distribution and geographical forms of settlement

Section 6. Economic geography of the world

6.1. Modern political map of the world. Main types of countries

6.2. Resource world potential.

6.3. Geography of extractive industries

6.4. Geography of manufacturing industries

6.5. Geography of agriculture

6.6. Geography of world transport

Section 7. Geography of Russia: nature

7.1. Geographical position of the country

7.2. Geological structure

7.3. Terrain diversity

7.4. Climatic features

7.5. Wealth of inland waters

7.6. natural areas

Section 8. Geography of Russia: population

8.1. Population size and reproduction

8.2. Population migrations

8.3. Sex and age structure of the population

8.4. Labor market and labor resources

8.5. National composition country's population

8.6. Features of the resettlement of the population

Section 9. Geography of Russia: economic and spatial specifics

9.1. Fuel industry

9.2. Energy

9.3. Ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy

9.4. Chemical industry

9.5. Agriculture

9.6. Foreign economic activity

A webinar is held before the final certification

Section 10

final examination

Learning Outcomes

As a result of mastering the course, the student must:

Know: goals, objectives and systematization of the earth sciences, as well as the main stages in the development of geographical science; theoretical foundations of geography and earth sciences; cosmic and planetary factors that determine the development of the geographic envelope; the internal structure of the Earth; composition, structure and main types of movement of the earth's crust; historical stages of the formation of the relief and the earth's surface, the main endogenous and exogenous relief-forming processes, landforms; the composition of the atmosphere; pressure, heating and water content in the atmosphere; the law of climatic zoning and its influence on the components of the geographic envelope; distribution of water masses on the surface of the earth and their role in the formation and functioning of the geographic envelope; main soil-forming factors, properties, functions and distribution of soils on the surface of the earth; the main stages of the evolution of the biosphere, its boundaries and structure; structural relationships between components in the geographic envelope for the analysis of changes and the solution of individual practical problems; size and structure of the population; location and forms of population resettlement in the world and in Russia; location and availability of natural resources: location factors and features of the leading sectors of the economy of the world and Russia; features of the geographical position and natural conditions of Russia; geographical nomenclature.

Be able to: explain modern ideas about the shape of the Earth, movement in space and time, structure and movement of the structural parts of the geospheres; to distinguish from each other relief forms of different genesis, to analyze the morphostructures and morphosculptures of the earth's surface; analyze the changes taking place in the geographic envelope, resulting from changes in individual components of the natural environment; analyze and explain the location and provision of the population and natural resources, the factors of location of the leading sectors of the economy of the world and Russia

Master the skills: work with geographic atlases and geographical maps different scale; analysis and compilation of diagrams, tables, graphs, diagrams and interpretation of the information contained in them; application of the conceptual and terminological apparatus of geography and related sciences; explanations of physical and economic-geographical processes in the geographical envelope, as well as the application of theoretical knowledge to solve research and applied problems.

Formed competencies

• (05.03.04 Hydrometeorology GPC3) Possession of basic general professional theoretical knowledge of the geographical shell, geomorphology with the basics of geology, biogeography, soil geography with the basics of soil science, landscape science, socio-economic geography;
• (05.03.06 Ecology and nature management GPC3) Possession of professionally profiled knowledge and practical skills in general geology, theoretical and practical geography, general soil science and use them in the field of ecology and nature management;
• (05.03.06 Ecology and nature management GPC5) Possession of knowledge of the basics of the doctrine of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere and landscape science.